Medieval English Literature:

A Reader

Evgenia Pancheva

Georgi Niagolov

Съставянето на сборника е финансирано

от Фонд „Научни изследвания” на МОН

2021

Contents Beowulf 3 The Wanderer 21 The Dream of the Rood. 28 Medieval Lyrics. 36 Sir Orfeo. 42 The Thrush and the Nightingale. 67 Sir Gawain and the Green Knight 77 Piers Plowman. 100 Geoffrey Chaucer 121 Secunda Pastorum (The Second Shepherds’ Play) 160 Everyman. 213 Thomas Malory: Le Morte Darthur, Book II 252 Recommended reading. 269  

Beowulf

Beowulf is generally considered the first great narrative poem composed in the English language. Due to its substantial length of 3,182 lines, its subject matter, and its poetic style it is generically identified as a heroic epic. The poem survives in a single manuscript, British Library, Cotton Vitellius A.xv, as a part of the so called Nowell Codex,? – an early 11th century compendium of stories about monsters. The issue of dating and placing the work is somewhat complicated. Many of the described people and events can be linked to historical sources and traced back to the 5th and 6th centuries AD and the region of Scandinavia and Northern Germany, ? – the very time and place from which the Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians migrated to the British Isles bringing along with them a strong oral tradition of pre-Christian heroic poetry. However, the poem, as it has come down to us, contains a profusion of Christian elements and themes which point to a later date of composition – some scholars suggest the period of intellectual and religious upsurge in the early 8th century, others prefer and even later time. This complex picture prompts yet another approach to the poem – as a text gradually evolving in time and space, spreading throughout the Anglo-Saxon period (449-1066), stretching over the North Sea, and inscribing in itself major aspects of Anglo-Saxon culture, such as its strong Germanic roots, the blending of history and legend, the sense of the fragility of civilization set against the dark forces of chaos and terror, the duty of the hero to protect social order, the growth of an accomplished warrior into a good king, the inexorable transience of power and strength, the tension between traditional belief systems and the new Christian faith. From a formal point of view Beowulf is a work of exquisite craftsmanship in terms of its elaborate narrative structure, its style, and its metrical organisation. It is a typical representative of Old English poetry, which as most Germanic poetry relies mainly on alliterative verse. As a rule of thumb, alliterative verse is made up of long lines each of which is divided into two half-lines (a-verse and b-verse) by a long pause (caesura); each half-line usually contains two accented (strongly stressed) syllables (called arses, lifts, or beats); the two half-lines are bound together by alliteration, i.e., usually the first accented syllable in the b-verse alliterates with one or both accented syllables in the a-verse. Another major characteristic of Old English poetry is the frequent use of particular stylistic devices termed kennings – nouns, compounds or phrases used instead of other nouns, e.g., hron-rād (whale-road, i.e. ocean) or weorðmyndum (mind’s worth, i.e., honour).

G.N.

Excerpt

Francis Barton Gummere’s Modern English translation used below is freely available at: www.gutenberg.org

1 ða him Hroþgar gewat    mid his hæleþa gedryht,

Then Hrothgar[1] went with his hero-train,

2 eodur Scyldinga,    ut of healle;

defence-of-Scyldings,[2] forth from hall;

3 wolde wigfruma    Wealhþeo secan,

fain would the war-lord Wealhtheow[3] seek,

4 cwen to gebeddan.    Hæfde kyningwuldor

couch of his queen. The King-of-Glory

5 Grendle togeanes,    swa guman gefrungon,

against this Grendel[4] a guard had set,

6 seleweard aseted;    sundornytte beheold

so heroes heard, a hall-defender,[5]

7 ymb aldor Dena,    eotonweard abead.

who warded the monarch and watched for the monster.

8 Huru Geata leod    georne truwode

In truth, the Geats’ prince[6] gladly trusted

9 modgan mægnes,    metodes hyldo.

his mettle, his might, the mercy of God!

10 ða he him of dyde    isernbyrnan,

Cast off then his corselet of iron,

11 helm of hafelan,    sealde his hyrsted sweord,

helmet from head; to his henchman gave,

12 irena cyst,    ombihtþegne,

choicest of weapons, – the well-chased sword,

13 ond gehealdan het    hildegeatwe.

bidding him guard the gear of battle.

14 Gespræc þa se goda    gylpworda sum,

Spake then his Vaunt the valiant man,

15 Beowulf Geata,    ær he on bed stige:

Beowulf Geat, ere the bed be sought:

16 “No ic me an herewæsmun    hnagran talige,

“Of force in fight no feebler I count me,

17 guþgeweorca,    þonne Grendel hine;

in grim war-deeds, than Grendel deems him.

18 forþan ic hine sweorde    swebban nelle,

Not with the sword, then, to sleep of death

19 aldre beneotan,    þeah ic eal mæge.

his life will I give, though it lie in my power.

20 Nat he þara goda    þæt he me ongean slea,

No skill is his to strike against me,

21 rand geheawe,    þeah ðe he rof sie

my shield to hew though he hardy be,

22 niþgeweorca;    ac wit on niht sculon

bold in battle; we both, this night,

23 secge ofersittan,    gif he gesecean dear

shall spurn the sword, if he seek me here,

24 wig ofer wæpen,    ond siþðan witig god

unweaponed, for war. Let wisest God,

25 on swa hwæþere hond,    halig dryhten,

sacred Lord, on which side soever

26 mærðo deme,    swa him gemet þince.”

doom decree as he deemeth right.”

27 Hylde hine þa heaþodeor,    hleorbolster onfeng

Reclined then the chieftain, and cheek-pillows held

28 eorles andwlitan,    ond hine ymb monig

the head of the earl, while all about him

29 snellic særinc    selereste gebeah.

seamen hardy on hall-beds sank.

30 Nænig heora þohte    þæt he þanon scolde

None of them thought that thence their steps

31 eft eardlufan    æfre gesecean,

to the folk and fastness that fostered them,

32 folc oþðe freoburh,    þær he afeded wæs;

to the land they loved, would lead them back!

33 ac hie hæfdon gefrunen    þæt hie ær to fela micles

Full well they wist that on warriors many

34 in þæm winsele    wældeað fornam,

battle-death seized, in the banquet-hall,

35 Denigea leode.    Ac him dryhten forgeaf

of Danish clan. But comfort and help,

36 wigspeda gewiofu,    Wedera leodum,

war-weal weaving, to Weder folk[7]

37 frofor ond fultum,    þæt hie feond heora

the Master gave, that, by might of one,

38 ðurh anes cræft    ealle ofercomon,

over their enemy all prevailed,

39 selfes mihtum.    Soð is gecyþed

by single strength. In sooth ‘tis told

40 þæt mihtig god    manna cynnes

that highest God o’er human kind

41 weold wideferhð.    Com on wanre niht

hath wielded ever! – Thro’ wan night striding,

42 scriðan sceadugenga.    Sceotend swæfon,

came the walker-in-shadow. Warriors slept

43 þa þæt hornreced    healdan scoldon,

whose hest was to guard the gabled hall,

44 ealle buton anum.    þæt wæs yldum cuþ

all save one. ‘Twas widely known

45 þæt hie ne moste,    þa metod nolde,

that against God’s will the ghostly ravager

46 se scynscaþa    under sceadu bregdan;

him could not hurl to haunts of darkness;

47 ac he wæccende    wraþum on andan

wakeful, ready, with warrior’s wrath,

48 bad bolgenmod    beadwa geþinges.

bold he bided the battle’s issue.

49 ða com of more    under misthleoþum

Then from the moorland, by misty crags,

50 Grendel gongan,    godes yrre bær;

with God’s wrath laden, Grendel came.

51 mynte se manscaða    manna cynnes

The monster was minded of mankind now

52 sumne besyrwan    in sele þam hean.

sundry to seize in the stately house.

53 Wod under wolcnum    to þæs þe he winreced,

Under welkin he walked, till the wine-palace there,

54 goldsele gumena,    gearwost wisse,

gold-hall of men, he gladly discerned,

55 fættum fahne.    Ne wæs þæt forma sið

flashing with fretwork. Not first time, this,

56 þæt he Hroþgares    ham gesohte;

that he the home of Hrothgar sought,

57 næfre he on aldordagum    ær ne siþðan

yet ne’er in his life-day, late or early,

58 heardran hæle,    healðegnas fand.

such hardy heroes, such hall-thanes, found!

59 Com þa to recede    rinc siðian,

To the house the warrior walked apace,

60 dreamum bedæled.    Duru sona onarn,

parted from peace; the portal opended,

61 fyrbendum fæst,    syþðan he hire folmum æthran;

though with forged bolts fast, when his fists had struck it,

62 onbræd þa bealohydig,    ða he gebolgen wæs,

and baleful he burst in his blatant rage,

63 recedes muþan.    Raþe æfter þon

the house’s mouth. All hastily, then,

64 on fagne flor    feond treddode,

o’er fair-paved floor the fiend trod on,

65 eode yrremod;    him of eagum stod

ireful he strode; there streamed from his eyes

66 ligge gelicost    leoht unfæger.

fearful flashes, like flame to see.

67 Geseah he in recede    rinca manige,

He spied in hall the hero-band,

68 swefan sibbegedriht    samod ætgædere,

kin and clansmen clustered asleep,

69 magorinca heap.    þa his mod ahlog;

hardy liegemen. Then laughed his heart;

70 mynte þæt he gedælde,    ærþon dæg cwome,

for the monster was minded, ere morn should dawn,

71 atol aglæca,    anra gehwylces

savage, to sever the soul of each,

72 lif wið lice,    þa him alumpen wæs

life from body, since lusty banquet

73 wistfylle wen.    Ne wæs þæt wyrd þa gen

waited his will! But Wyrd[8] forbade him

74 þæt he ma moste    manna cynnes

to seize any more of men on earth

75 ðicgean ofer þa niht.    þryðswyð beheold

after that evening. Eagerly watched

76 mæg Higelaces,    hu se manscaða

Hygelac’s kinsman[9] his cursed foe,

77 under færgripum    gefaran wolde.

how he would fare in fell attack.

78 Ne þæt se aglæca    yldan þohte,

Not that the monster was minded to pause!

79 ac he gefeng hraðe    forman siðe

Straightway he seized a sleeping warrior

80 slæpendne rinc,    slat unwearnum,

for the first, and tore him fiercely asunder,

81 bat banlocan,    blod edrum dranc,

the bone-frame bit, drank blood in streams,

82 synsnædum swealh;    sona hæfde

swallowed him piecemeal: swiftly thus

83 unlyfigendes    eal gefeormod,

the lifeless corpse was clear devoured,

84 fet ond folma.    Forð near ætstop,

e’en feet and hands. Then farther he hied;

85 nam þa mid handa    higeþihtigne

for the hardy hero with hand he grasped,

86 rinc on ræste,    ræhte ongean

felt for the foe with fiendish claw,

87 feond mid folme;    he onfeng hraþe

for the hero reclining, – who clutched it boldly,

88 inwitþancum    ond wið earm gesæt.

prompt to answer, propped on his arm.

89 Sona þæt onfunde    fyrena hyrde

Soon then saw that shepherd-of-evils

90 þæt he ne mette    middangeardes,

that never he met in this middle-world[10],

91 eorþan sceata,    on elran men

in the ways of earth, another wight

92 mundgripe maran.    He on mode wearð

with heavier hand-gripe; at heart he feared,

93 forht on ferhðe;    no þy ær fram meahte.

sorrowed in soul, – none the sooner escaped!

94 Hyge wæs him hinfus,    wolde on heolster fleon,

Fain would he flee, his fastness seek,

95 secan deofla gedræg;    ne wæs his drohtoð þær

the den of devils: no doings now

96 swylce he on ealderdagum    ær gemette.

such as oft he had done in days of old!

97 Gemunde þa se goda,    mæg Higelaces,

Then bethought him the hardy Hygelac-thane

98 æfenspræce,    uplang astod

of his boast at evening: up he bounded,

99 ond him fæste wiðfeng;    fingras burston.

grasped firm his foe, whose fingers cracked.

100 Eoten wæs utweard;    eorl furþur stop.

The fiend made off, but the earl close followed.

101 Mynte se mæra,    þær he meahte swa,

The monster meant – if he might at all –

102 widre gewindan    ond on weg þanon

to fling himself free, and far away

103 fleon on fenhopu;    wiste his fingra geweald

fly to the fens, – knew his fingers’ power

104 on grames grapum.    þæt wæs geocor sið

in the gripe of the grim one. Gruesome march

105 þæt se hearmscaþa    to Heorute ateah.

to Heorot this monster of harm had made!

106 Dryhtsele dynede;    Denum eallum wearð,

Din filled the room; the Danes were bereft,

107 ceasterbuendum,    cenra gehwylcum,

castle-dwellers and clansmen all,

108 eorlum ealuscerwen.    Yrre wæron begen,

earls, of their ale. Angry were both

109 reþe renweardas.    Reced hlynsode.

those savage hall-guards: the house resounded.

110 þa wæs wundor micel    þæt se winsele

Wonder it was the wine-hall firm

111 wiðhæfde heaþodeorum,    þæt he on hrusan ne feol,

in the strain of their struggle stood, to earth

112 fæger foldbold;    ac he þæs fæste wæs

the fair house fell not; too fast it was

113 innan ond utan    irenbendum

within and without by its iron bands

114 searoþoncum besmiþod.    þær fram sylle abeag

craftily clamped; though there crashed from sill

115 medubenc monig,    mine gefræge,

many a mead-bench – men have told me

116 golde geroegnad,    þær þa graman wunnon.

gay with gold, where the grim foes wrestled.

117 þæs ne wendon ær    witan Scyldinga

So well had weened the wisest Scyldings

118 þæt hit a mid gemete    manna ænig,

that not ever at all might any man

119 betlic ond banfag,    tobrecan meahte,

that bone-decked, brave house break asunder,

120 listum tolucan,    nymþe liges fæþm

crush by craft, – unless clasp of fire

121 swulge on swaþule.    Sweg up astag

in smoke engulfed it.[11] – Again uprose

122 niwe geneahhe;    Norðdenum stod

din redoubled. Danes of the North

123 atelic egesa,    anra gehwylcum

with fear and frenzy were filled, each one,

124 þara þe of wealle    wop gehyrdon,

who from the wall that wailing heard,

125 gryreleoð galan    godes ondsacan,

God’s foe sounding his grisly song,

126 sigeleasne sang,    sar wanigean

cry of the conquered, clamorous pain

127 helle hæfton.    Heold hine fæste

from captive of hell. Too closely held him

128 se þe manna wæs    mægene strengest

he who of men in might was strongest

129 on þæm dæge    þysses lifes.

in that same day of this our life.

130 Nolde eorla hleo    ænige þinga

Not in any wise would the earls’-defence

131 þone cwealmcuman    cwicne forlætan,

suffer that slaughterous stranger to live,

132 ne his lifdagas    leoda ænigum

useless deeming his days and years

133 nytte tealde.    þær genehost brægd

to men on earth. Now many an earl

134 eorl Beowulfes    ealde lafe,

of Beowulf brandished blade ancestral,

135 wolde freadrihtnes    feorh ealgian,

fain the life of their lord to shield,

136 mæres þeodnes,    ðær hie meahton swa.

their praised prince, if power were theirs;

137 Hie þæt ne wiston,    þa hie gewin drugon,

never they knew, – as they neared the foe,

138 heardhicgende    hildemecgas,

hardy-hearted heroes of war,

139 ond on healfa gehwone    heawan þohton,

aiming their swords on every side

140 sawle secan,    þone synscaðan

the accursed to kill, – no keenest blade,

141 ænig ofer eorþan    irenna cyst,

no fairest of falchions fashioned on earth,

142 guðbilla nan,    gretan nolde,

could harm or hurt that hideous fiend!

143 ac he sigewæpnum    forsworen hæfde,

He was safe, by his spells, from sword of battle,

144 ecga gehwylcre.    Scolde his aldorgedal

from edge of iron. Yet his end and parting

145 on ðæm dæge    þysses lifes

on that same day of this our life

146 earmlic wurðan,    ond se ellorgast

woful should be, and his wandering soul

147 on feonda geweald    feor siðian.

far off flit to the fiends’ domain.

148 ða þæt onfunde    se þe fela æror

Soon he found, who in former days,

149 modes myrðe    manna cynne,

harmful in heart and hated of God,

150 fyrene gefremede    (he wæs fag wið god),

on many a man such murder wrought,

151 þæt him se lichoma    læstan nolde,

that the frame of his body failed him now.

152 ac hine se modega    mæg Hygelaces

For him the keen-souled kinsman of Hygelac

153 hæfde be honda;    wæs gehwæþer oðrum

held in hand; hateful alive

154 lifigende lað.    Licsar gebad

was each to other. The outlaw dire

155 atol æglæca;    him on eaxle wearð

took mortal hurt; a mighty wound

156 syndolh sweotol,    seonowe onsprungon,

showed on his shoulder, and sinews cracked,

157 burston banlocan.    Beowulfe wearð

and the bone-frame burst. To Beowulf now

158 guðhreð gyfeþe;    scolde Grendel þonan

the glory was given, and Grendel thence

159 feorhseoc fleon    under fenhleoðu,

death-sick his den in the dark moor sought,

160 secean wynleas wic;    wiste þe geornor

noisome abode: he knew too well

161 þæt his aldres wæs    ende gegongen,

that here was the last of life, an end

162 dogera dægrim.    Denum eallum wearð

of his days on earth. – To all the Danes

163 æfter þam wælræse    willa gelumpen.

by that bloody battle the boon had come.

164 Hæfde þa gefælsod    se þe ær feorran com,

From ravage had rescued the roving stranger

165 snotor ond swyðferhð,    sele Hroðgares,

Hrothgar’s hall; the hardy and wise one

166 genered wið niðe;    nihtweorce gefeh,

had purged it anew. His night-work pleased him,

167 ellenmærþum.    Hæfde Eastdenum

his deed and its honor. To Eastern Danes

168 Geatmecga leod    gilp gelæsted,

had the valiant Geat his vaunt made good,

169 swylce oncyþðe    ealle gebette,

all their sorrow and ills assuaged,

170 inwidsorge,    þe hie ær drugon

their bale of battle borne so long,

171 ond for þreanydum    þolian scoldon,

and all the dole they erst endured

172 torn unlytel.    þæt wæs tacen sweotol,

pain a-plenty. – ‘Twas proof of this,

173 syþðan hildedeor    hond alegde,

when the hardy-in-fight a hand laid down,

174 earm ond eaxle    (þær wæs eal geador

arm and shoulder, – all, indeed,

175 Grendles grape)    under geapne hrof.

of Grendel’s gripe, – ‘neath the gabled roof.

176 ða wæs on morgen    mine gefræge

Many at morning, as men have told me,

177 ymb þa gifhealle    guðrinc monig;

warriors gathered the gift-hall round,

178 ferdon folctogan    feorran ond nean

folk-leaders faring from far and near,

179 geond widwegas    wundor sceawian,

o’er wide-stretched ways, the wonder to view,

180 laþes lastas.    No his lifgedal

trace of the traitor. Not troublous seemed

181 sarlic þuhte    secga ænegum

the enemy’s end to any man

182 þara þe tirleases    trode sceawode,

who saw by the gait of the graceless foe

183 hu he werigmod    on weg þanon,

how the weary-hearted, away from thence,

184 niða ofercumen,    on nicera mere

baffled in battle and banned, his steps

185 fæge ond geflymed    feorhlastas bær.

death-marked dragged to the devils’ mere.

186 ðær wæs on blode    brim weallende,

Bloody the billows were boiling there,

187 atol yða geswing    eal gemenged

turbid the tide of tumbling waves

188 haton heolfre,    heorodreore weol.

horribly seething, with sword-blood hot,

189 Deaðfæge deog,    siððan dreama leas

by that doomed one dyed, who in den of the moor

190 in fenfreoðo    feorh alegde,

laid forlorn his life adown,

191 hæþene sawle;    þær him hel onfeng.

his heathen soul, and hell received it.

192 þanon eft gewiton    ealdgesiðas,

Home then rode the hoary clansmen

193 swylce geong manig    of gomenwaþe

from that merry journey, and many a youth,

194 fram mere modge    mearum ridan,

on horses white, the hardy warriors,

195 beornas on blancum.    ðær wæs Beowulfes

back from the mere. Then Beowulf’s glory

196 mærðo mæned;    monig oft gecwæð

eager they echoed, and all averred

197 þætte suð ne norð    be sæm tweonum

that from sea to sea, or south or north,

198 ofer eormengrund    oþer nænig

there was no other in earth’s domain,

199 under swegles begong    selra nære

under vault of heaven, more valiant found,

200 rondhæbbendra,    rices wyrðra.

of warriors none more worthy to rule!

201 Ne hie huru winedrihten    wiht ne logon,

(On their lord beloved they laid no slight,

202 glædne Hroðgar,    ac þæt wæs god cyning.

gracious Hrothgar: a good king he!)

203 Hwilum heaþorofe    hleapan leton,

From time to time, the tried-in-battle

204 on geflit faran    fealwe mearas

their gray steeds set to gallop amain,

205 ðær him foldwegas    fægere þuhton,

and ran a race when the road seemed fair.

206 cystum cuðe.    Hwilum cyninges þegn,

From time to time, a thane of the king,

207 guma gilphlæden,    gidda gemyndig,

who had made many vaunts, and was mindful of verses,

208 se ðe ealfela    ealdgesegena

stored with sagas and songs of old,

209 worn gemunde,    word oþer fand

bound word to word in well-knit rime,

210 soðe gebunden;    secg eft ongan

welded his lay; this warrior soon

211 sið Beowulfes    snyttrum styrian

of Beowulf’s quest right cleverly sang,

212 ond on sped wrecan    spel gerade,

and artfully added an excellent tale,

213 wordum wrixlan.    Welhwylc gecwæð

in well-ranged words, of the warlike deeds

214 þæt he fram Sigemundes    secgan hyrde

he had heard in saga of Sigemund.[12]

215 ellendædum,    uncuþes fela,

Strange the story: he said it all, –

216 Wælsinges gewin,    wide siðas,

the Waelsing’s[13] wanderings wide, his struggles,

217 þara þe gumena bearn    gearwe ne wiston,

which never were told to tribes of men,

218 fæhðe ond fyrena,    buton Fitela mid hine,

the feuds and the frauds, save to Fitela[14] only,

219 þonne he swulces hwæt    secgan wolde,

when of these doings he deigned to speak,

220 eam his nefan,    swa hie a wæron

uncle to nephew; as ever the twain

221 æt niða gehwam    nydgesteallan;

stood side by side in stress of war,

222 hæfdon ealfela    eotena cynnes

and multitude of the monster kind

223 sweordum gesæged.    Sigemunde gesprong

they had felled with their swords. Of Sigemund grew,

224 æfter deaðdæge    dom unlytel,

when he passed from life, no little praise;

225 syþðan wiges heard    wyrm acwealde,

for the doughty-in-combat a dragon killed

226 hordes hyrde.    He under harne stan,

that herded the hoard: under hoary rock

227 æþelinges bearn,    ana geneðde

the atheling[15] dared the deed alone

228 frecne dæde,    ne wæs him Fitela mid.

fearful quest, nor was Fitela there.

229 Hwæþre him gesælde    ðæt þæt swurd þurhwod

Yet so it befell, his falchion pierced

230 wrætlicne wyrm,    þæt hit on wealle ætstod,

that wondrous worm, – on the wall it struck,

231 dryhtlic iren;    draca morðre swealt.

best blade; the dragon died in its blood.

232 Hæfde aglæca    elne gegongen

Thus had the dread-one by daring achieved

233 þæt he beahhordes    brucan moste

over the ring-hoard to rule at will,

234 selfes dome;    sæbat gehleod,

himself to pleasure; a sea-boat he loaded,

235 bær on bearm scipes    beorhte frætwa,

and bore on its bosom the beaming gold,

236 Wælses eafera.    Wyrm hat gemealt.

son of Waels; the worm was consumed.

237 Se wæs wreccena    wide mærost

He had of all heroes the highest renown

238 ofer werþeode,    wigendra hleo,

among races of men, this refuge-of- warriors,

239 ellendædum    (he þæs ær onðah),

for deeds of daring that decked his name

240 siððan Heremodes    hild sweðrode,

since the hand and heart of Heremod[16]

241 eafoð ond ellen.    He mid Eotenum wearð

grew slack in battle. He, swiftly banished

242 on feonda geweald    forð forlacen,

to mingle with monsters at mercy of foes,

243 snude forsended.    Hine sorhwylmas

to death was betrayed; for torrents of sorrow

244 lemede to lange;    he his leodum wearð,

had lamed him too long; a load of care

245 eallum æþellingum    to aldorceare;

to earls and athelings all he proved.

246 swylce oft bemearn    ærran mælum

Oft indeed, in earlier days,

247 swiðferhþes sið    snotor ceorl monig,

for the warrior’s wayfaring wise men mourned,

248 se þe him bealwa to    bote gelyfde,

who had hoped of him help from harm and bale,

249 þæt þæt ðeodnes bearn    geþeon scolde,

and had thought their sovran’s son would thrive,

250 fæderæþelum onfon,    folc gehealdan,

follow his father, his folk protect,

251 hord ond hleoburh,    hæleþa rice,

the hoard and the stronghold, heroes’ land,

252 Scyldinga.    He þær eallum wearð,

home of Scyldings. – But here, thanes said,

253 mæg Higelaces,    manna cynne,

the kinsman of Hygelac kinder seemed

254 freondum gefægra;    hine fyren onwod.

to all: the other was urged to crime!

255 Hwilum flitende    fealwe stræte

And afresh to the race, the fallow roads

256 mearum mæton.    ða wæs morgenleoht

by swift steeds measured! The morning sun

257 scofen ond scynded.    Eode scealc monig

was climbing higher. Clansmen hastened

258 swiðhicgende    to sele þam hean

to the high-built hall, those hardy-minded,

259 searowundor seon;    swylce self cyning

the wonder to witness. Warden of treasure,

260 of brydbure,    beahhorda weard,

crowned with glory, the king himself,

261 tryddode tirfæst    getrume micle,

with stately band from the bride-bower strode;

262 cystum gecyþed,    ond his cwen mid him

and with him the queen and her crowd of maidens

263 medostigge mæt    mægþa hose.

measured the path to the mead-house fair.

264 Hroðgar maþelode    (he to healle geong,

Hrothgar spake, – to the hall he went,

265 stod on stapole,    geseah steapne hrof,

stood by the steps, the steep roof saw,

266 golde fahne,    ond Grendles hond):

garnished with gold, and Grendel’s hand:

267 “ðisse ansyne    alwealdan þanc

“For the sight I see to the Sovran Ruler

268 lungre gelimpe!    Fela ic laþes gebad,

be speedy thanks! A throng of sorrows

269 grynna æt Grendle;    a mæg god wyrcan

I have borne from Grendel; but God still works

270 wunder æfter wundre,    wuldres hyrde.

wonder on wonder, the Warden-of-Glory.

271 ðæt wæs ungeara    þæt ic ænigra me

It was but now that I never more

272 weana ne wende    to widan feore

for woes that weighed on me waited help

273 bote gebidan,    þonne blode fah

long as I lived, when, laved in blood,

274 husa selest    heorodreorig stod,

stood sword-gore-stained this stateliest house,

275 wea widscofen    witena gehwylcum

widespread woe for wise men all,

276 ðara þe ne wendon    þæt hie wideferhð

who had no hope to hinder ever

277 leoda landgeweorc    laþum beweredon

foes infernal and fiendish sprites

278 scuccum ond scinnum.    Nu scealc hafað

from havoc in hall. This hero now,

279 þurh drihtnes miht    dæd gefremede

by the Wielder’s might, a work has done

280 ðe we ealle    ær ne meahton

that not all of us erst could ever do

281 snyttrum besyrwan.    Hwæt, þæt secgan mæg

by wile and wisdom. Lo, well can she say

282 efne swa hwylc mægþa    swa ðone magan cende

whoso of women this warrior bore

283 æfter gumcynnum,    gyf heo gyt lyfað,

among sons of men, if still she liveth,

284 þæt hyre ealdmetod    este wære

that the God of the ages was good to her

285 bearngebyrdo.    Nu ic, Beowulf, þec,

in the birth of her bairn. Now, Beowulf, thee,

286 secg betsta,    me for sunu wylle

of heroes best, I shall heartily love

287 freogan on ferhþe;    heald forð tela

as mine own, my son; preserve thou ever

288 niwe sibbe.    Ne bið þe nænigra gad

this kinship new: thou shalt never lack

289 worolde wilna,    þe ic geweald hæbbe.

wealth of the world that I wield as mine!

290 Ful oft ic for læssan    lean teohhode,

Full oft for less have I largess showered,

291 hordweorþunge    hnahran rince,

my precious hoard, on a punier man,

292 sæmran æt sæcce.    þu þe self hafast

less stout in struggle. Thyself hast now

293 dædum gefremed    þæt þin dom lyfað

fulfilled such deeds, that thy fame shall endure

294 awa to aldre.    Alwalda þec

through all the ages. As ever he did,

295 gode forgylde,    swa he nu gyt dyde!”

well may the Wielder reward thee still!”

296 Beowulf maþelode,    bearn Ecþeowes:

Beowulf spake, bairn of Ecgtheow:

297 “We þæt ellenweorc    estum miclum,

“This work of war most willingly

298 feohtan fremedon,    frecne geneðdon

we have fought, this fight, and fearlessly dared

299 eafoð uncuþes.    Uþe ic swiþor

force of the foe. Fain, too, were I

300 þæt ðu hine selfne    geseon moste,

hadst thou but seen himself, what time

301 feond on frætewum    fylwerigne.

the fiend in his trappings tottered to fall!

302 Ic hine hrædlice    heardan clammum

Swiftly, I thought, in strongest gripe

303 on wælbedde    wriþan þohte,

on his bed of death to bind him down,

304 þæt he for mundgripe    minum scolde

that he in the hent of this hand of mine

305 licgean lifbysig,    butan his lic swice.

should breathe his last: but he broke away.

306 Ic hine ne mihte,    þa metod nolde,

Him I might not – the Maker willed not

307 ganges getwæman,    no ic him þæs georne ætfealh,

hinder from flight, and firm enough hold

308 feorhgeniðlan;    wæs to foremihtig

the life-destroyer: too sturdy was he,

309 feond on feþe.    Hwæþere he his folme forlet

the ruthless, in running! For rescue, however,

310 to lifwraþe    last weardian,

he left behind him his hand in pledge,

311 earm ond eaxle.    No þær ænige swa þeah

arm and shoulder; nor aught of help

312 feasceaft guma    frofre gebohte;

could the cursed one thus procure at all.

313 no þy leng leofað    laðgeteona,

None the longer liveth he, loathsome fiend,

314 synnum geswenced,    ac hyne sar hafað

sunk in his sins, but sorrow holds him

315 mid nydgripe    nearwe befongen,       

tightly grasped in gripe of anguish,

316 balwon bendum.    ðær abidan sceal

in baleful bonds, where bide he must,

317 maga mane fah    miclan domes,

evil outlaw, such awful doom

318 hu him scir metod    scrifan wille.”

as the Mighty Maker shall mete him out.”

319 ða wæs swigra secg,    sunu Eclafes,

More silent seemed the son of Ecglaf[17]

320 on gylpspræce    guðgeweorca,

in boastful speech of his battle-deeds,

321 siþðan æþelingas    eorles cræfte

since athelings all, through the earl’s great prowess,

322 ofer heanne hrof    hand sceawedon,

beheld that hand, on the high roof gazing,

323 feondes fingras.    Foran æghwylc wæs,

foeman’s fingers, – the forepart of each

324 stiðra nægla gehwylc,    style gelicost,

of the sturdy nails to steel was likest, –

325 hæþenes handsporu    hilderinces,

heathen’s “hand-spear,” hostile warrior’s

326 egl, unheoru.    æghwylc gecwæð

claw uncanny. ‘Twas clear, they said,

327 þæt him heardra nan    hrinan wolde

that him no blade of the brave could touch,

328 iren ærgod,    þæt ðæs ahlæcan

how keen soever, or cut away

329 blodge beadufolme    onberan wolde.

that battle-hand bloody from baneful foe.

330 ða wæs haten hreþe    Heort innanweard

There was hurry and hest in Heorot now

331 folmum gefrætwod.    Fela þæra wæs,

for hands to bedeck it, and dense was the throng

332 wera ond wifa,    þe þæt winreced,

of men and women the wine-hall to cleanse,

333 gestsele gyredon.    Goldfag scinon

the guest-room to garnish. Gold-gay shone the hangings

334 web æfter wagum,    wundorsiona fela

that were wove on the wall, and wonders many

335 secga gehwylcum    þara þe on swylc starað.

to delight each mortal that looks upon them.

336 Wæs þæt beorhte bold    tobrocen swiðe,

Though braced within by iron bands,

337 eal inneweard    irenbendum fæst,

that building bright was broken sorely;

338 heorras tohlidene.    Hrof ana genæs,

rent were its hinges; the roof alone

339 ealles ansund,    þe se aglæca,

held safe and sound, when, seared with crime,

340 fyrendædum fag,    on fleam gewand,

the fiendish foe his flight essayed,

341 aldres orwena.    No þæt yðe byð

of life despairing. – No light thing that,

342 to befleonne,    fremme se þe wille,

the flight for safety, – essay it who will!

343 ac gesecan sceal    sawlberendra,

Forced of fate, he shall find his way

344 nyde genydde,    niþða bearna,

to the refuge ready for race of man,

345 grundbuendra    gearwe stowe,

for soul-possessors, and sons of earth;

346 þær his lichoma    legerbedde fæst

and there his body on bed of death

347 swefeþ æfter symle.    þa wæs sæl ond mæl

shall rest after revel. Arrived was the hour

348 þæt to healle gang    Healfdenes sunu;

when to hall proceeded Healfdene’s son:

349 wolde self cyning    symbel þicgan.

the king himself would sit to banquet.

350 Ne gefrægen ic þa mægþe    maran weorode

Ne’er heard I of host in haughtier throng

351 ymb hyra sincgyfan    sel gebæran.

more graciously gathered round giver-of-rings!

352 Bugon þa to bence    blædagande,

Bowed then to bench those bearers-of-glory,

353 fylle gefægon;    fægere geþægon

fain of the feasting. Featly received

354 medoful manig    magas þara

many a mead-cup the mighty-in-spirit,

355 swiðhicgende    on sele þam hean,

kinsmen who sat in the sumptuous hall,

356 Hroðgar ond Hroþulf.    Heorot innan wæs

Hrothgar and Hrothulf.[18] Heorot now

357 freondum afylled;    nalles facenstafas

was filled with friends; the folk of Scyldings

358 þeodscyldingas    þenden fremedon.

ne’er yet had tried the traitor’s deed.

359 Forgeaf þa Beowulfe    bearn Healfdenes

To Beowulf gave the bairn of Healfdene

360 segen gyldenne    sigores to leane;

a gold-wove banner, guerdon of triumph,

361 hroden hildecumbor,    helm ond byrnan,

broidered battle-flag, breastplate and helmet;

362 mære maðþumsweord    manige gesawon

and a splendid sword was seen of many

363 beforan beorn beran.    Beowulf geþah

borne to the brave one. Beowulf took

364 ful on flette;    no he þære feohgyfte

the cup in hall: for such costly gifts

365 for sceotendum    scamigan ðorfte.

he suffered no shame in that soldier throng.

366 Ne gefrægn ic freondlicor    feower madmas

For I heard of few heroes, in heartier mood,

367 golde gegyrede    gummanna fela

with four such gifts, so fashioned with gold,

368 in ealobence    oðrum gesellan.

on the ale-bench honoring others thus!

369 Ymb þæs helmes hrof    heafodbeorge

O’er the roof of the helmet high, a ridge,

370 wirum bewunden    walu utan heold,

wound with wires, kept ward o’er the head,

371 þæt him fela laf    frecne ne meahton

lest the relict-of-files should fierce invade,

372 scurheard sceþðan,    þonne scyldfreca

sharp in the strife, when that shielded hero

373 ongean gramum    gangan scolde.

should go to grapple against his foes.

374 Heht ða eorla hleo    eahta mearas

Then the earls’-defence on the floor bade lead

375 fætedhleore    on flet teon,

coursers eight, with carven head-gear,

376 in under eoderas.    þara anum stod

adown the hall: one horse was decked

377 sadol searwum fah,    since gewurþad;

with a saddle all shining and set in jewels;

378 þæt wæs hildesetl    heahcyninges,

‘twas the battle-seat of the best of kings,

379 ðonne sweorda gelac    sunu Healfdenes

when to play of swords the son of Healfdene

380 efnan wolde.    Næfre on ore læg

was fain to fare. Ne’er failed his valor

381 widcuþes wig,    ðonne walu feollon.

in the crush of combat when corpses fell.

382 Ond ða Beowulfe    bega gehwæþres

To Beowulf over them both then gave

383 eodor Ingwina    onweald geteah,

the refuge-of-Ingwines[19] right and power,

384 wicga ond wæpna,    het hine wel brucan.

o’er war-steeds and weapons: wished him joy of them.

385 Swa manlice    mære þeoden,

Manfully thus the mighty prince,

386 hordweard hæleþa,    heaþoræsas geald

hoard-guard for heroes, that hard fight repaid

387 mearum ond madmum,    swa hy næfre man lyhð,

with steeds and treasures contemned by none

388 se þe secgan wile    soð æfter rihte.

who is willing to say the sooth aright.

Select bibliography and websites:

Context

Brown, Peter (ed.). A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

Godden, Malcolm et al. (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Mincoff, Marco. A History of English Literature. Sofia: Pleiad, 1998.

Pulsano, Philip et al. (eds.). A Companion to Anglo-Saxon Literature. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2001.

Robert E. Bjork et al. (eds.). A Beowulf Handbook. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997.

Wallace, David et al. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/anglo_saxons/

http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00kpv23

Text

Elaine Treharne, and Duncan Wu (eds.). Old English and Middle English Poetry. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.

Heather O’Donoghue (ed.). Kevin Crossley-Holland (trans.). Beowulf. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Seamus Heaney. Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. London: W.W. Norton & Company, 2001.

http://ebeowulf.uky.edu/studyingbeowulfs/overview

http://www.heorot.dk/

http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/englit/beowulf/index.html

http://etext.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/AnoBeow.html

http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/search/?query=beowulf

Afterlife

http://www.library.rochester.edu/robbins/beowulfiana

Julian Glover’s hybrid presentation of the poem: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IR464WBmA2s

Benjamin Bagby’s presentation of the poem in the original Old English: http://www.bagbybeowulf.com/

Robert Zemeckis’s film adaptation: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0442933/

The Wanderer

The Old English elegy The Wanderer was probably written in the 8th C. It is part of The Codex Exoniensis, or the Exeter Book, Folios 76r-78r . The manuscript was given to Exeter Cathedral by Bishop Leofric in 1072 and practically forgotten until 1826. It contains religious poems, lyrics, elegies, riddles, sententiae, and gnomic (aphoristic) verses. These include masterpieces like Christ, Juliana, Phoenix, The Wanderer, The Seafarer, Widsith, Deor, The Ruin, The Wife’s Complaint, and The Husband’s Message. Like the rest of the Exeter Book elegies, or lyrics of lament (The Seafarer, Deor, The Wife’s Complaint, and The Husband’s Message), The Wanderer articulates the predicament of a human being placed beyond the borders of civilisation and losing contact with kin and kind. The traditional themes of exile, literal and symbolic, and the futility of human endeavour shape the entire poem but are most powerfully stated at its end.

The Wanderer records the miseries of a speaker, alienated from the male bonding of the comitatus, or dryht, which shaped the warrior’s public and private identity. In the poem, the lordless man of Anglo-Saxon society considers various consolations to allieviate his grief. After the failure of traditional arguments, it is the Christian perspective that offers hope: there is the “Father in Heaven” where “all security remains for us”. The eschatological perspective contains a promise of reintegration in a heavenly comitatus, where the generosity of the earthly ring-giver is replaced by the mercy of God (metudes miltse). Meanwhile, the wise man should be patient and moderate in a world ruled by transience, in the manner of Ecclesiastes. Universal decay is constructed as the will of a Creator whose ways are inscrutable and, when such conclusions are reached, the pre-Christian concept of Wyrd (Fate, the turn of events) is readily incorporated. At such points, the anonymous scop can only pose his anguished questions:

Where has gone the steed? Where has gone the man?

Where has gone the giver of treasure? Where the place of the banquets?

Where are the pleasures of the hall? Alas, the gleaming chalice, alas the armoured warrior, alas the majesty of the prince ...

Storms beat upon these heaps of stone (...)

All is hardship on earth.

In structural terms, the poem falls into a number of moves. First, the poetic persona introduces the subject (ll. 1-7). Next, a different poetic voice starts soliliquising about his personal experience on the seas (ll. 8-87). The so called “cleavage” of line 88 marks another transition: after a brief intrusion of the framing lyrical voice (ll. 88-91), the poem reproduces that of the wise man. In the recognisable manner of the Ubi sunt, he philosophises on a world dominated by mutability and decay. The third move (ll. 111-115) is spoken by the framing lyrical voice who reasserts the ultimately Christian message of The Wanderer.

E. P.

Text

The translation used below is freely accessible at: www.anglo-saxons.net

1 Oft him anhaga    are gebideð,

Often the solitary one finds grace for himself,

2 metudes miltse,    þeah þe he modcearig

the mercy of the Lord,[20] although he, sorry-hearted,

3 geond lagulade    longe sceolde

must for a long time

4 hreran mid hondum    hrimcealde sæ

move by hand[21] along the ice-cold[22] sea,

5 wadan wræclastas.    Wyrd bið ful aræd!

tread the paths of exile. Events always go as they must![23]

6 Swa cwæð eardstapa,    earfeþa gemyndig,

So spoke the wanderer, mindful of hardships,

7 wraþra wælsleahta,    winemæga hryre:

of fierce slaughters and the downfall of kinsmen:

8 Oft ic sceolde ana    uhtna gehwylce

Often[24] I had alone to speak of my trouble

9 mine ceare cwiþan.    Nis nu cwicra nan

each morning before dawn. There is none now living

10 þe ic him modsefan    minne durre

to whom I dare clearly speak

11 sweotule asecgan.    Ic to soþe wat

of my innermost thoughts. I know it truly,

12 þæt biþ in eorle    indryhten þeaw,

that it is in men a noble custom,

13 þæt he his ferðlocan    fæste binde,

that one should keep secure his spirit-chest,[25]

14 healde his hordcofan,    hycge swa he wille.

guard his treasure-chamber,[26] think as he wishes.

15 Ne mæg werig mod    wyrde wiðstondan,

The weary spirit cannot withstand fate,

16 ne se hreo hyge    helpe gefremman.

nor does a rough or sorrowful mind

17 Forðon domgeorne    dreorigne oft

do any good.[27] Thus those eager for glory

18 in hyra breostcofan    bindað fæste;

often keep secure dreary thoughts in their breast;

19 swa ic modsefan    minne sceolde,

So I, often wretched, my inmost thoughts

20 oft earmcearig,    eðle bidæled,

sorrowful, bereft of my homeland,

21 freomægum feor    feterum sælan,

far from noble kinsmen, had to bind in fetters.

22 siþþan geara iu    goldwine minne

Since long years ago I hid my lord

23 hrusan heolstre biwrah,    ond ic hean þonan

in the darkness of the earth, and I, wretched,

24 wod wintercearig    ofer waþema gebind,

from there travelled most sorrowfully over the frozen waves

25 sohte seledreorig    sinces bryttan,

sought, sad at the lack of a hall, a giver of treasure,

26 hwær ic feor oþþe neah    findan meahte

where I, far or near, might find

27 þone þe in meoduhealle    mine wisse,

one in the meadhall who knew my people,

28 oþþe mec freondleasne    frefran wolde,

or wished to console the friendless one, me,

29 weman mid wynnum.    Wat se þe cunnað

entertain with delights. He who has tried it knows

30 hu sliþen bið    sorg to geferan

how cruel is sorrow as a companion

31 þam þe him lyt hafað    leofra geholena:

to the one who has few beloved friends:

32 warað hine wræclast,    nales wunden gold,

the path of exile holds him, not at all twisted gold,

33 ferðloca freorig,    nalæs foldan blæd.

a frozen spirit, not the bounty of the earth.

34 Gemon he selesecgas    ond sincþege,

He remembers hall-warriors and the giving of treasure.

35 hu hine on geoguðe    his goldwine

How in youth his lord[28] accustomed him

36 wenede to wiste.    Wyn eal gedreas!

to the feasting. All the joy has died!

37 Forþon wat se þe sceal    his winedryhtnes

And so he knows it, he who must forgo

38 leofes larcwidum    longe forþolian:

for a long time the counsels of his beloved lord:

39 ðonne sorg ond slæð    somod ætgædre

Then sorrow and sleep both together

40 earmne anhogan    oft gebindað.

often tie up the wretched solitary one.

41 þinceð him on mode    þæt he his mondryhten

He thinks in his mind that he his lord

42 clyppe ond cysse,    ond on cneo lecge

embraces and kisses, and on his knees[29] lays

43 honda ond heafod,    swa he hwilum ær

his hands and his head, Just as, at times before,

44 in geardagum    giefstolas breac.

in days gone by, he enjoyed the gift-seat.[30]

45 Ðonne onwæcneð eft    wineleas guma,

Then the friendless man wakes up again,

46 gesihð him biforan    fealwe wegas,

He sees before him fallow waves,

47 baþian brimfuglas,    brædan feþra,

Sea birds bathe, preening their feathers,

48 hreosan hrim ond snaw    hagle gemenged.

Frost and snow fall, mixed with hail.

49 Þonne beoð þy hefigran    heortan benne,

Then are the heavier the wounds of the heart,

50 sare æfter swæsne.    Sorg bið geniwad

grievous with longing for the lord. Sorrow is renewed

51 þonne maga gemynd    mod geondhweorfeð;

when the mind surveys the memory of kinsmen;

52 greteð gliwstafum,    georne geondsceawað

He greets them joyfully, eagerly scans

53 secga geseldan;    swimmað oft on weg

the companions of men; they always swim away.

54 fleotendra ferð    no þær fela bringeð

The spirits of seafarers never bring back there much

55 cuðra cwidegiedda.    Cearo bið geniwad

in the way of known speech. Care is renewed

56 þam þe sendan sceal    swiþe geneahh

for the one who must send every often

57 ofer waþema gebind    werigne sefan.

over the binding of the waves a weary heart.

58 Forþon ic geþencan ne mæg    geond þas woruld

Indeed I cannot think why my spirit does not darken

59 for hwan modsefa    min ne gesweorce

when I ponder on the whole life of men

60 þonne ic eorla lif    eal geondþence,

throughout the world,

61 hu hi færlice    flet ofgeafon,

How they suddenly left the floor,

62 modge maguþegnas.    Swa þes middangeard

the proud thanes. So this middle-earth,

63 ealra dogra gehwam    dreoseð ond fealleð;

a bit each day, droops and decays -

64 forþon ne mæg weorþan wis    wer, ær he age

Therefore man cannot call himself wise, before he has

65 wintra dæl in woruldrice.    Wita sceal geþyldig,

a share of years in the world. A wise man must be patient,

66 ne sceal no to hatheort    ne to hrædwyrde,

He must never be too impulsive nor too hasty of speech,

67 ne to wac wiga    ne to wanhydig,

nor too weak a warrior nor too reckless, nor too fearful,

68 ne to forht ne to fægen,    ne to feohgifre

 nor too cheerful, nor too greedy for goods,

69 ne næfre gielpes to georn,    ær he geare cunne.

nor ever too eager for boasts, before he sees clearly.

70 Beorn sceal gebidan,    þonne he beot spriceð,

A man must wait when he speaks oaths,

71 oþþæt collenferð    cunne gearwe

until the proud-hearted one sees clearly

72 hwider hreþra gehygd    hweorfan wille.

whither the intent of his heart will turn.

73 Ongietan sceal gleaw hæle    hu gæstlic bið,

A wise hero must realize how terrible it will be,

74 þonne ealre þisse worulde wela    weste stondeð,   

When all the wealth in this world lies waste,

75 swa nu missenlice    geond þisne middangeard

as now in various places throughout this middle-earth

76 winde biwaune    weallas stondaþ,

walls stand, blown by the wind,

77 hrime bihrorene,    hryðge þa ederas.

covered with frost, storm-swept the buildings.

78 Woriað þa winsalo,    waldend licgað

The halls decay, their lords lie

79 dreame bidrorene,    duguþ eal gecrong,

deprived of joy, the whole troop has fallen,

80 wlonc bi wealle.    Sume wig fornom,

the proud ones, by the wall. War took off some,

81 ferede in forðwege,    sumne fugel oþbær

carried them on their way, one, the bird took off

82 ofer heanne holm,    sumne se hara wulf

across the deep sea, one, the gray wolf

83 deaðe gedælde,    sumne dreorighleor

shared one with death, one, the dreary-faced

84 in eorðscræfe    eorl gehydde.

man buried in a grave.

85 Yþde swa þisne eardgeard    ælda scyppend

And so He destroyed this city, He, the Creator of Men,

86 oþþæt burgwara    breahtma lease

until deprived of the noise of the citizens,

87 eald enta geweorc    idlu stodon.

the ancient work of giants stood empty.

88 Se þonne þisne wealsteal    wise geþohte

He who thought wisely on this foundation,

89 ond þis deorce lif    deope geondþenceð,

and pondered deeply on this dark life,

90 frod in ferðe,    feor oft gemon

wise in spirit, remembered often from afar

91 wælsleahta worn,    ond þas word acwið:

many conflicts, and spoke these words:

92 Hwær cwom mearg? Hwær cwom mago?    Hwær cwom maþþumgyfa?

Where is the horse gone? Where the rider? Where the giver of treasure?

93 Hwær cwom    symbla gesetu? Hwær sindon    seledreamas?

Where are the seats at the feast? Where are the revels in the hall?

94 Eala beorht bune!    Eala byrnwiga! 

Alas for the bright cup! Alas for the mailed warrior!

95 Eala þeodnes þrym!    Hu seo þrag gewat,

Alas for the splendour of the prince! How that time has passed away,

96 genap under nihthelm,    swa heo no wære.

dark under the cover of night, as if it had never been!

97 Stondeð nu on laste    leofre duguþe

Now there stands in the trace of the beloved troop

98 weal wundrum heah,    wyrmlicum fah.

a wall, wondrously high, wound round with serpents.

99 Eorlas fornoman    asca þryþe,

The warriors taken off by the glory of spears,

100 wæpen wælgifru,    wyrd seo mære,

the weapons greedy for slaughter, the famous fate,

101 ond þas stanhleoþu    stormas cnyssað,

and storms beat these rocky cliffs,

102 hrið hreosende    hrusan bindeð,

falling frost fetters the earth,

103 wintres woma,    þonne won cymeð,

the harbinger of winter; Then dark comes,

104 nipeð nihtscua,    norþan onsendeð

nightshadows deepen, from the north there comes

105 hreo hæglfare    hæleþum on andan.

a rough hailstorm in malice against men.

106 Eall is earfoðlic    eorþan rice,

All is troublesome in this earthly kingdom,

107 onwendeð wyrda gesceaft    weoruld under heofonum.

the turn of events changes the world under the heavens.

108 Her bið feoh læne,    her bið freond læne,

Here money is fleeting, here friends are fleeting,

109 her bið mon læne,    her bið mæg læne,

here man is fleeting, here kinsman is fleeting,

110 eal þis eorþan gesteal    idel weorþeð!

all the foundation of this world turns to waste!

111 Swa cwæð snottor on mode,    gesæt him sundor æt rune.

So spake the wise man in his mind,    where he sat apart in counsel.

112 Til biþ se þe his treowe gehealdeþ,    ne sceal næfre his torn to rycene

unless he already knows the remedy – a hero must act with courage.

113 beorn of his breostum acyþan,    nemþe he ær þa bote cunne,

Good is he who keeps his faith, And a warrior must never speak

114 eorl mid elne gefremman.    Wel bið þam þe him are seceð,

his grief of his breast too quickly, It is better for the one that seeks mercy,

115 frofre to Fæder on heofonum,    þær us eal seo    fæstnung stondeð.

consolation from the father in the heavens, where, for us, all permanence rests.

Select bibliography and websites:

Context

Brown, Peter (ed.). A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

Godden, Malcolm et al. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Mincoff, Marco. A History of English Literature. Sofia: Pleiad, 1998.

Page, R. Life in Anglo-Saxon England. Putnam, 1970.

Pulsano, Philip et al. (eds.). A Companion to Anglo-Saxon Literature. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2001.

Wallace, David et al. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/anglo_saxons/

The Wanderer Project at: http://research.uvu.edu/mcdonald/wanderweb/index.htm

Folio facsimiles at: http://www.aimsdata.com/tim/anhaga/edition.htm

Text

Pasternack, Carol Braun. The Textuality of Old English Poetry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Dobbie, E. V. K. The Exeter Book. Columbia University Press, 1936.

Conner, Patrick W. “Anglo-Saxon Exeter: A Tenth-Century Cultural History.” Studies in Anglo-Saxon History, volume 4. Boydell Press, 1993.

Fulk, Robert D. A History of Old English Meter. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992.

Leslie, R. F. The Wanderer. Manchester University Press, 1966.

Muir, Bernard. Exeter Anthology of Old English Poetry. An Edition of Exeter Dean and Chapter MS 3501. Exeter University Press, 1994.

A reading of the poem at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1zolqiMxoDk

Glossary at: http://research.uvu.edu/mcdonald/wanderweb/glossary.htm

Afterlife

Aragorn’s song of Rohan in J. R. R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings reproduces the Ubi sunt part of The Wanderer: “Where now the horse and the rider? Where is the horn that was blowing?”

The Dream of the Rood

The Dream of the Rood is an early Christian poem written in Old English alliterative verse. It has come down to us in a single manuscript contained in the Vercelli Book, – a 10th century collection of religious poetry from the Anglo-Saxon period, discovered in 1832 in the cathedral of Vercelli in northern Italy. Fragments from the text also survive in runes and Latin script carved into an 8th century Anglo-Saxon stone cross situated in Ruthwell, Scotland. The poem is structured as a dream vision – a popular medieval convention, deeply rooted in both the Biblical and the classical traditions, which allows safeguarding the authoritative stance of a work while proposing a new angle on the subject matter. The story is told through a complex layering of perspectives: the reader of the poem is addressed by a first person narrator, who relates his dream, in which the Saviour’s Cross (rod) speaks to him and tells him the story of the crucifixion of Jesus from its own point of view. This structure enables the use of two central rhetorical figures which sustain the overall poetic effect of The Dream – ekphrasis (a dramatic description of a work of art) and prosopopoeia (personification of an object). The poem employs the former when the dreamer makes a very detailed description of the magnificent vision of the resurrected cross which penetrates the ornate surface and leads to a powerful understanding of the suffering that lies beneath. This persistent scrutiny of the vision builds up to a revelationary experience, realised in the text by means of the latter rhetorical figure, in which the seemingly inanimate object speaks to the dreamer. Telling the story of Christ’s Passion from this point of view, the poem manages to approximate the relationship between the cross and Jesus to that between a noble thane and his lord. Out of its loyalty to the Saviour the cross must suppress its intuitive duty to protect him and suffer to become the instrument of his torture and murder, thus aiding him to redeem mankind and gaining a place in heaven.

G.N.

Text

James M. Garnett’s translation used below is freely accessible at: www.gutenberg.org

1 Hwæt, ic swefna cyst    secgan wylle,

Lo! choicest of dreams I will relate,

2 hwæt me gemætte    to midre nihte,

What dream I dreamt in the middle of night

3 syðþan reordberend    reste wunedon.

When mortal men[31] reposed in rest.

4 þuhte me þæt ic gesawe    syllicre treow

Methought I saw a wondrous wood

5 on lyft lædan    leohte bewunden,

Tower aloft with light bewound,

6 beama beorhtost.    Eall þæt beacen wæs

Brightest of trees; that beacon was all

7 begoten mid golde.    Gimmas stodon

Begirt with gold; jewels were standing

8 fægere æt foldan sceatum,    swylce þær fife wæron

Fair at surface of earth, likewise were there five

9 uppe on þam eaxlgespanne.    Beheoldon þær engel dryhtnes ealle,

Above on the shoulder-brace. All angels of God beheld it,

10 fægere þurh forðgesceaft.    Ne wæs ðær huru fracodes gealga,

Fair through future ages; ‘twas no criminal’s cross indeed,

11 ac hine þær beheoldon    halige gastas,

But holy spirits beheld it there,

12 men ofer moldan    ond eall þeos mære gesceaft.

Men upon earth, all this glorious creation.

13 Syllic wæs se sigebeam,    ond ic synnum fah,

Strange was that victor-tree, and stained with sins was I,

14 forwunded mid wommum.    Geseah ic wuldres treow,

With foulness defiled. I saw the glorious tree

15 wædum geweorðod    wynnum scinan,

With vesture adorned winsomely shine,

16 gegyred mid golde;    gimmas hæfdon

Begirt with gold; bright gems had there

17 bewrigen weorðlice    wealdendes treow.

Worthily decked the tree of the Lord.

18 Hwæðre ic þurh þæt gold    ongytan meahte

Yet through that gold I might perceive

19 earmra ærgewin,    þæt hit ærest ongan

Old strife of the wretched, that first it gave

20 swætan on þa swiðran healfe.    Eall ic wæs mid sorgum gedrefed,

Blood on the right side. [32] With sorrows was I oppressed,

21 forht ic wæs for þære fægran gesyhðe.    Geseah ic þæt fuse beacen

Afraid for that fair sight; I saw the ready beacon

22 wendan wædum ond bleom;    hwilum hit wæs mid wætan bestemed,

Change in vesture and hue; at times with moisture covered,

23 beswyled mid swates gange,    hwilum mid since gegyrwed.

Soiled with course of blood; at times with treasure adorned.

24 Hwæðre ic þær licgende    lange hwile

Yet lying there a longer while,

25 beheold hreowcearig    hælendes treow,

Beheld I sad the Saviour’s tree

26 oð ðæt ic gehyrde    þæt hit hleoðrode.

Until I heard that words it uttered;

27 Ongan þa word sprecan    wudu selesta:

The best of woods gan speak these words:

28 ‘Þæt wæs geara iu,    (ic þæt gyta geman),

“‘Twas long ago (I remember it still)

29 þæt ic wæs aheawen    holtes on ende,

That I was hewn at end of a grove,

30 astyred of stefne minum.    Genaman me ðær strange feondas,

Stripped from off my stem; strong foes laid hold of me there,

31 geworhton him þær to wæfersyne,    heton me heora wergas hebban.

Wrought for themselves a show, bade felons raise me up;

32 Bæron me þær beornas on eaxlum,    oððæt hie me on beorg asetton,

Men bore me on their shoulders, till on a mount they set me;

33 gefæstnodon me þær feondas genoge.    Geseah ic þa frean mancynnes

Enemies many fixed me there. Then saw I mankind’s Lord

34 efstan elne micle,    þæt he me wolde on gestigan.

Hasten with great might, for he would climb upon me.

35 Þær ic þa ne dorste    ofer dryhtnes word

There durst I not ‘gainst word of the Lord

36 bugan oððe berstan,    þa ic bifian geseah

Bow down or break, when saw I tremble

37 eorðan sceatas.    Ealle ic mihte

The surface of earth; I might then all

38 feondas gefyllan,    hwæðre ic fæste stod.

My foes have felled, yet fast I stood.

39 Ongyrede hine þa geong hæleð,    (þæt wæs god ælmihtig),

The Hero young begirt Himself (Almighty God was He),

40 strang ond stiðmod.    Gestah he on gealgan heanne,

Strong and stern of mind; He climbed on the gallows high,

41 modig on manigra gesyhðe,    þa he wolde mancyn lysan.

Weary in sight of many, for mankind He would redeem.

42 Bifode ic þa me se beorn ymbclypte.    Ne dorste ic hwæðre bugan to eorðan,

I shook when the Hero clasped me, yet durst not bow to earth,

43 feallan to foldan sceatum,    ac ic sceolde fæste standan.

Fall to surface of earth, but firm I must there stand.

44 Rod wæs ic aræred.    Ahof ic ricne cyning,

A rood was I upreared; I bore the mighty King,

45 heofona hlaford,    hyldan me ne dorste.

The Lord of Heaven; I durst not bend me.

46 Þurhdrifan hi me mid deorcan næglum.    On me syndon þa dolg gesiene,

They drove their dark nails through me; The wounds are seen upon me,

47 opene inwidhlemmas.    Ne dorste ic hira ænigum sceððan.

The open gashes of guile; I durst harm none of them.

48 Bysmeredon hie unc butu    ætgædere. Eall ic wæs mid blode bestemed,

They mocked us both together; all moistened with blood was I,

49 begoten of þæs guman sidan,    siððan he hæfde his gast onsended.

Shed from side of the man, when forth He sent His spirit.

50 ‘Feala ic on þam beorge    gebiden hæbbe

Many have I on that mount endured

51 wraðra wyrda.    Geseah ic weruda god

Of cruel fates; I saw the Lord of Hosts

52 þearle þenian.    Þystro hæfdon

Strongly outstretched; darkness had then

53 bewrigen mid wolcnum    wealdendes hræw,

Covered with clouds the corpse of the Lord,

54 scirne sciman,    sceadu forð eode,

The brilliant brightness; the shadow continued,

55 wann under wolcnum.    Weop eal gesceaft,

Wan ‘neath the welkin. There wept all creation,

56 cwiðdon cyninges fyll.    Crist wæs on rode.

Bewailed the King’s death; Christ on the cross.

57 Hwæðere þær fuse    feorran cwoman

Yet hastening thither they came from afar

58 to þam æðelinge.    Ic þæt eall beheold.

To the Son of the King: that all I beheld.

59 Sare ic wæs sorgum gedrefed,    hnag ic hwæðre þam secgum to handa,

Sorely with sorrows was I oppressed; yet I bowed ‘neath the hands of men,

60 eaðmod elne mycle.    Genamon hie þær ælmihtigne god,

Lowly with mickle might. Took they there Almighty God,

61 ahofon hine of ðam hefian wite.    Forleton me þa hilderincas

Him raised from the heavy torture; the warriors left me

62 standan steame bedrifenne;    eall ic wæs mid strælum forwundod.

To stand bedrenched with blood; all wounded with darts was I.

63 Aledon hie þær limwerigne,    gestodon him æt his lices heafdum,

There laid they the weary of limb, at head of His corpse they stood,

64 beheoldon hie þær heofenes dryhten,    ond he hine þær hwile reste,

Beheld the Lord of Heaven, and He rested Him there awhile,

65 meðe æfter ðam miclan gewinne.    Ongunnon him þa moldern wyrcan

Worn from much war. Began they an sepulcher to work,

66 beornas on banan gesyhðe;    curfon hie ðæt of beorhtan stane,

Men in the murderers’ sight, carved it of brightest stone,

67 gesetton hie ðæron sigora wealdend.    Ongunnon him þa sorhleoð galan

Placed therein victories’ Lord. Began sad songs to sing

68 earme on þa æfentide,    þa hie woldon eft siðian,

The wretched at eventide; then would they back return

69 meðe fram þam mæran þeodne.    Reste he ðær mæte weorode.

Mourning from the mighty prince; all lonely rested He there.

70 Hwæðere we ðær greotende    gode hwile

Yet weeping we then a longer while

71 stodon on staðole,    syððan stefn up gewat

Stood at our station: the voice arose

72 hilderinca.    Hræw colode,

Of battle-warriors; the corpse grew cold,

73 fæger feorgbold.    Þa us man fyllan ongan

Fair house of life. Then one began to hew

74 ealle to eorðan.    Þæt wæs egeslic wyrd!

Us all to earth; ‘twas a fearful fate!

75 Bedealf us man on deopan seaþe.    Hwæðre me þær dryhtnes þegnas, freondas gefrunon,

One buried us in deep pit, yet of me the thanes of the Lord, His friends, heard tell;

76 ond gyredon me    golde ond seolfre.

[from earth they raised me], And me begirt with gold and silver.

77 ‘Nu ðu miht gehyran,    hæleð min se leofa,

Now thou mayst hear, my dearest man,

78 þæt ic bealuwara weorc    gebiden hæbbe,

That bale of woes have I endured,

79 sarra sorga.    Is nu sæl cumen

Of sorrows sore. Now the time is come,

80 þæt me weorðiað    wide on side

That me shall honor both far and wide

81 menn ofer moldan,    ond eall þeos mære gesceaft,

Men upon earth, and all this mighty creation

82 gebiddaþ him to þyssum beacne.    On me bearn godes

Will pray to this beacon. On me God’s Son

83 þrowode hwile.    Forþan ic þrymfæst nu

Suffered awhile; so glorious now

84 hlifige under heofenum,    ond ic hælan mæg

I tower to Heaven, and I may heal

85 æghwylcne anra,    þara þe him bið egesa to me.

Each one of those who reverence me;

86 Iu ic wæs geworden    wita heardost,

Of old I became the hardest of pains,

87 leodum laðost,    ærþan ic him lifes weg

Loathed by people, the way of life,

88 rihtne gerymde,    reordberendum.

Right way, I prepared for mortal men.

89 Hwæt, me þa geweorðode    wuldres ealdor

Lo! the Lord of Glory honored me then

90 ofer holtwudu,    heofonrices weard!

Above the grove, the guardian of Heaven,

91 Swylce swa he his modor eac,    Marian sylfe,

As He His mother, even Mary herself,

92 ælmihtig god    for ealle menn

Almighty God before all men

93 geweorðode    ofer eall wifa cynn.

Worthily honored above all women.

94 ‘Nu ic þe hate,    hæleð min se leofa,

Now thee I bid, my dearest man,

95 þæt ðu þas gesyhðe    secge mannum,

That thou this sight shalt say to men,

96 onwreoh wordum    þæt hit is wuldres beam,

Reveal in words, ‘tis the tree of glory,

97 se ðe ælmihtig god    on þrowode

On which once suffered Almighty God

98 for mancynnes    manegum synnum

For the many sins of all mankind,

99 ond Adomes    ealdgewyrhtum.

And also for Adam’s misdeeds of old.

100 Deað he þær byrigde,    hwæðere eft dryhten aras

Death tasted He there; yet the Lord arose

101 mid his miclan mihte    mannum to helpe.

With His great might for help to men.

102 He ða on heofanas astag.    Hider eft fundaþ

Then stied He to Heaven; again shall come

103 on þysne middangeard    mancynn secan

Upon this mid-earth to seek mankind

104 on domdæge    dryhten sylfa,

At the day of doom the Lord Himself,

105 ælmihtig god,    ond his englas mid,

Almighty God, and His angels with Him;

106 þæt he þonne wile deman,    se ah domes geweald,

Then He will judge, who hath right of doom,

107 anra gehwylcum    swa he him ærur her

Each one of men as here before

108 on þyssum lænum    life geearnaþ.

In this vain life he hath deserved.

109 Ne mæg þær ænig    unforht wesan

No one may there be free from fear

110 for þam worde    þe se wealdend cwyð.

In view of the word that the

111 Frineð he for þære mænige    hwær se man sie,

Judge will speak. He will ask ‘fore the crowd, where is the man

112 se ðe for dryhtnes naman    deaðes wolde

Who for name of the Lord would bitter death

113 biteres onbyrigan,    swa he ær on ðam beame dyde.

Be willing to taste, as He did on the tree.

114 Ac hie þonne forhtiað,    ond fea þencað

But then they will fear, and few will bethink them

115 hwæt hie to Criste    cweðan onginnen.

What they to Christ may venture to say.

116 Ne þearf ðær þonne ænig    anforht wesan

Then need there no one be filled with fear

117 þe him ær in breostum bereð    beacna selest,

Who bears in his breast the best of beacons;

118 ac ðurh ða rode sceal    rice gesecan

But through the rood a kingdom shall seek

119 of eorðwege    æghwylc sawl,

From earthly way each single soul

120 seo þe mid wealdende    wunian þenceð.”

That with the Lord thinketh to dwell.

121 Gebæd ic me þa to þam beame    bliðe mode,

“Then I prayed to the tree with joyous heart,

122 elne mycle,    þær ic ana wæs

With mickle might, when I was alone

123 mæte werede.    Wæs modsefa

With small attendance; the thought of my mind

124 afysed on forðwege,    feala ealra gebad

I’ve lived through many hours of longing.

125 langunghwila.    Is me nu lifes hyht

Now ‘tis hope of my life

126 þæt ic þone sigebeam    secan mote

That the victory-tree I am able to seek,

127 ana oftor    þonne ealle men,

Oftener than all men I alone may

128 well weorþian.    Me is willa to ðam

Honor it well; my will to that

129 mycel on mode,    ond min mundbyrd is

Is mickle in mind, and my plea for protection

130 geriht to þære rode.    Nah ic ricra feala

To the rood is directed. I’ve not many mighty

131 freonda on foldan,    ac hie forð heonon

Of friends on earth; but hence went they forth

132 gewiton of worulde dreamum,    sohton him wuldres cyning,

From joys of the world, sought glory’s King;

133 lifiaþ nu on heofenum    mid heahfædere,

Now live they in Heaven with the Father on high,

134 wuniaþ on wuldre,    ond ic wene me

In glory dwell, and I hope for myself

135 daga gehwylce    hwænne me dryhtnes rod,

On every day when the rood of the Lord,

136 þe ic her on eorðan    ær sceawode,

Which here on earth before I viewed,

137 on þysson lænan    life gefetige

In this vain life may fetch me away

138 ond me þonne gebringe    þær is blis mycel,

And bring me then, where bliss is mickle,

139 dream on heofonum,    þær is dryhtnes folc

Joy in the Heavens, where the folk of the Lord

140 geseted to symle,    þær is singal blis,

Is set at the feast, where bliss is eternal;

141 ond me þonne asette    þær ic syððan mot

And may He then set me where I may hereafter

142 wunian on wuldre,    well mid þam halgum

In glory dwell, and well with the saints

143 dreames brucan.    Si me dryhten freond,

Of joy partake. May the Lord be my friend,

144 se ðe her on eorðan    ær þrowode

Who here on earth suffered before

145 on þam gealgtreowe    for guman synnum.

On the gallows-tree for the sins of man!

146 He us onlysde    ond us lif forgeaf,

He us redeemed, and gave to us life,

147 heofonlicne ham.    Hiht wæs geniwad

A heavenly home. Hope was renewed,

148 mid bledum ond mid blisse    þam þe þær bryne þolodan.

With blessing and bliss, for the sufferers of burning.

149 Se sunu wæs sigorfæst    on þam siðfate,

The Son was victorious on that fateful journey,

150 mihtig ond spedig,    þa he mid manigeo com,

Mighty and happy, when He came with a many,

151 gasta weorode,    on godes rice,

With a band of spirits to the kingdom of God,

152 anwealda ælmihtig,    englum to blisse

The Ruler Almighty, for joy to the angels

153 ond eallum ðam halgum    þam þe on heofonum ær

And to all the saints, who in Heaven before

154 wunedon on wuldre,    þa heora wealdend cwom,

In glory dwelt, when their Ruler came,

155 ælmihtig god,    þær his eðel wæs.

Almighty God, where was His home.

Select bibliography and websites:

Context

Brown, Peter (ed.). A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

Godden, Malcolm et al. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. 

Mincoff, Marco. A History of English Literature. Sofia: Pleiad, 1998.

Pulsano, Philip et al. (eds.). A Companion to Anglo-Saxon Literature. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2001.

Swanton, Michael James (ed.). The Dream of the Rood. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 1970.

Wallace, David et al. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Text

An excellent online source for studying the poem featuring a hypertext version of the original with Modern English translation, glossary and annotations can be found at: http://www.dreamofrood.co.uk/

Another hypertext edition of the poem is freely available at: http://www.english.ox.ac.uk/oecoursepack/rood/index.html  

Afterlife

The poem read in Old English: http://vimeo.com/13911933 

More information about the Ruthwell Cross: http://visionarycross.org/

Medieval Lyrics

Medieval English lyrics were shaped by traditions as diverse as the Latin hymns (especially the planctus Mariae, the complaint of the Virgin after the Crucifixion), drinking songs (cf. the anonymous 13th century Carmina Burana), Old English poetry, and the French lyrical genres of carole and courtly poetry, with their emphatic use of rhyme. After Henry II’s marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine,’ daughter of William of Poitou, “the father of the troubadours”, troubadour lyrics became another formative influence.

Medieval lyrics were written by Franciscan friars such as Thomas of Hales, William Herebert , and John Grimestone, and later by scriveners and minstrels. The earliest known author of lyrics is St. Godric (d.1170), the visionary and composer of Sante Marye Virgine.  Fourteenth-century lyricists include the mystic Richard Rolle of Hampole and Geoffrey Chaucer, while the fifteenth century boasts the names of Thomas Hoccleve and John Lydgate.

The main religious genres of the medieval lyrical tradition are the passion poem, the poem in praise of the Virgin and her joys, the planctus Mariae,lamenting her death, and the contemptus mundi (contempt of the world). Secular genres include the reverdie (“re-greening”, the spring song), the alba (the morning song of the lover), the political poem, the social satire, the chanson d’ aventure (the song of love-adventure), the pastourelle, or the wooing of a shepherdess by a knight, etc. 

Stylistically, medieval lyrics employ allegory and riddle, paradox, irony, punning,  parallelism, anaphora, and the refrain.

E. P.

Cuckoo Song (“Sumer is Icumen in”)

“Sumer is icumen in” (“Summer has arrived”, Brit. Lib. MS Harley 978, f. 11v) is an anonymous English lyric of the early or mid-13th century, written in the Wessex dialect. It was meant to be sung as a six-voice rota, or round. It is found in a British Library manuscript from Reading Abbey and is therefore also known as the Reading rota. The music was probably composed by W. de Wycombe and copied at Oxford. The multilingual manuscript is a miscellany of religious and Goliardic pieces, lais, etc. “Sumer is icumen in” is the only English text in the manuscript.

The poem is akin to the troubadour genre of reverdie. Commonplace as its poetic statements are, the piece is remarkable for its dynamic representation of nature’s revival in springtime, through the accumulation of verbs and direct address.  The harmonic principle of the rota is’ intensified by means of repetition and end rhyme (cuckou-now, cow-cuckou), internal rhyme (groweth-bloweth, seed-meed), (sumer-sing-seed-springth, lamb-loweth, calve-cow, bulloc-bucke), and by the poem’s overall onomatopoeic effect. It has also been suggested that it contains a deeper ironic layer of sexual innuendo.

E. P.

Text

1 Sumer is ycomen in,

2 Loude sing cuckou!

3 Groweth seed and bloweth meed,[33]

4 And springth the wode[34] now

5 Sing cuckou!

6 Ewe bleteth after lamb,

7 Loweth after calve cow,

8 Bulloc sterteth,[35] bucke verteth[36]

9 Merye sing cuckou!

10 Cuckou, cuckou,

11 Wel singest thou cuckou:

12 Ne swik[37] thou never now

Alisoun

Beginning as a reverdie, “Alisoun” goes on to articulate the speaker’s lovesickness, with its traditional symptomatology and courtly self-abandonment. Anticipating the Elizabethan sonnet subgenre of the blazon, the lyric features a catalogue of the lady’s charms: the blond’ hair, the black eyes, the brown brows. In the spirit of fin’ amor, the lover’s suffering is imagined as a special gift from God. Highlighted by the refrain, the idea counterpoises the lover’s  complaint and logically leads to the ’conclusion: it is better to suffer for a while than mourn forever.’

E.P.

Text

1 Bitweene Merch and Averil,

in the seasons of

2 When spray biginneth to springe,

3 The litel fowl hath hire wil

pleasure

4 On hire leod to singe.

in her language

5 Ich libbe in love-longinge

I live

6 For semlokest of alle thinge.

Seemliest, fairest

7 Heo may me blisse bringe:

she

8 Ich am in hire baundoun.

power

9 An hendy hap ich habbe yhent,

a gracious chance I have received

10 Ichoot from hevene it is me sent:

I know

11 From alle wommen my love is lent,

all other; removed

12 And light on Alisoun.

alights

13 On hew hire heer is fair ynough,

hue; hair

14 Hire browe browne, hire yen blake;

eyes

15 With lossum cheere heo on me lough;

with lovely face she on me smiled

16 With middel smal and wel ymake.

17 But heo me wolle to hire take

unless

18 For to been hire owen make,

mate

19 Longe to liven ichulle forsake,

I will

20 And feye fallen adown.

Dead

21 An hendy hap, etc.

22 Nightes when I wende and wake,

turn

23 Forthy mine wonges waxeth wan:

therefore; cheeks

24 Levedy, al for thine sake

lady

25 Longinge is ylent me on.

longing has come upon me

26 In world nis noon so witer man

clever

27 That al hire bountee telle can;

excellence

28 Hire swire is whittere than the swan,

neck; whiter

29 And fairest may in town.

maid

30 An hendy, etc.

31 Ich am for wowing al forwake,

wooing; worn out from waking

32 Wery so water in wore.

As

33 Lest any reve me my make

deprive me

34 Ich habbe y-yerned yore.

I have been worrying long since

35 Bettere is tholien while sore

endure; for a time

36 Than mournen evermore.

37 Geinest under gore,

fairest beneath clothing

38 Herkne to my roun:

song

39 An hendy, etc.

I Sing of a Maiden

The late 14th or early 15th- century “I sing of a Maiden” glorifies the Virgin and the Immaculate Conception. It, however, never mentions them explicitly but, in a riddling mode, expects the reader to make a guess. The clue is contained in the pun on “makeless”, “without a paragon” as well as “without a mate”.

The poem appears in MS. Sloane 2593 (ff.10v-11), held by the British Library, together with other poems, such as “I have a gentil cok”, “Adam lay i-bowndyn”, and “A minstrel’s begging song”. Judging by the dialect, the poem was probably created in Warwickshire and might have been inserted in a Marian mystery play.

E.P.

Text

1 I sing of a maiden

2 That is makelees:[38]

3 King of alle kinges

4 To her sone[39] she chees.[40]

5 He cam also stille

6 Ther[41] his moder[42] was

7 As dewe in Aprille

8 That falleth on the gras.

9 He cam also stille

10 To his modres bowr

11 As dewe in Aprille

12 That falleth on the flowr.

13 He cam also stille

14 Ther his moder lay

15 As dewe in Aprille

16 That falleth on the spray.

17 Moder and maiden

18 Was nevere noon but she:

19 Wel may swich[43] a lady

20 Godes moder be.

Of a Rose Synge We

Composed circa 1450, “Of a Rose Synge We” is another example of the Mariological tradition in High Medieval poetry. Like “I Sing of a Maiden”, it is composed in a riddling mode, further elaborated by a “macaronic” mixture of English and Latin lines, which contribute to its solemnity of tone.

Appropriating major doctrinal points – the mystery of the Immaculate Conception and the typological association of Christ with David and the prophets of the Old Testament, the poem reproduces the Gothic topoi of the Virgin as the Rosa mystica (mystic rose), Rosa sine spina, (rose without thorns), and Flos florum (flower of flowers), recurrent in the writings of St. Bernard of Clairvaux and St. Bonaventure.

E.P.

Text

Of a rose synge we:

Misterium mirabile.

miraculous mystery

1 This rose is railed on a rys;

staked (supported by a “rail”), a branch

2 He hath bought the prince of prys,

the best of princes (i.e., Christ)

3 And in this tyme soth hit ys,

truth it is; certain it is

4 Viri sine semine.

without seed of man

5 Of a rose, &c.

6 This rose is reed of colour bryght,

7 Throw whom oure joye gan alyght,

through; began

8 Uppon a Cristys masse nyght,

Christ’s mass, i.e., Christmas

9 Claro David germine.

born of the house of David

10 Of a rose, &c.

11 Of this rose was Cryst y-bore,

born

12 To save mankynde that was forlore;

forsaken; gone astray

13 And us alle from synnes sore,

14 Prophetarum carmine.

as the prophets foretold

15 Of a rose, &c.

16 This rose, of flourys she is flour,

she is the flower of flowers

17 She ne wole fade for no shour,

she will not fade from any shower (of rain)

18 To synful men she sent socour,

succour

19 Mira plenitudine.

in wondrous plenty

20 Of a rose, &c.

21 This rose is so faire of hywe,

hue

22 In maide Mary that is so trywe,

faithful

23 Y-borne was lorde of virtue,

24 Salvator sine crimine.

Saviour without sin

25 Of a rose, &c.

Select bibliography and websites:

Context

Brown, Peter (ed.). A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

Lambdin, Laura C.,  and Robert T. Lambdin. A Companion to Old and Middle English Literature. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002.

Mincoff, Marco. A History of English Literature. Sofia, Pleiad, 1998.

Saunders, Corinne. A Companion to Medieval Poetry. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

Wallace, David et al. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Text

http://www.luminarium.org/medlit/medlyric/

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BVdA9t-AOfU

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=54VCXLnaXV4

Sir Orfeo

About fifty or sixty in number, the extant romances of medieval England were written between the late 13th and the early 15th century. Narratives reshaped in the process of transmission, they are best understood as belonging to a common intertextual space. Romances frequently echo recognisable myths and archetypes. Originally meant for recital, romances gradually became poetry for private reading, until, in the 15th century, they were transformed by authors like Malory into prose stories circulated by the printing press.

Probably an adaptation of a French Breton lay, the anonymous Middle English Sir Orfeo was composed circa 1330 in the East Midlands. It is found in the Auchinleck manuscript (ca. 1330-45), one of our major sources for this genre, and a miscellany Chaucer may have owned. The poem is composed in octosyllabic couplets.

Defining itself as a Breton lay, Sir Orfeo is a strikingly anachronistic rewriting of the classical story of Orpheus and Eurydice, found in Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Book  X, and Virgil’s Georgics, Book  IV. The medieval poet refashions the story in the spirit of the Celtic folk-tale tradition. In his rendition, Sir Orfeo’s beloved Heurodis is, like people in the Irish aithed, or abduction narratives, taken by the Fairy King. Rather than to the Greek Hades, she is carried to the Celtic Otherworld, from where Orfeo eventually brings her back. Producing what Jeff Rider has called “a hybrid super-myth”“[44], the romance also implicitly echoes Christian appropriations of Ovid and Virgil, which imagine Orpheus as a Christ-like redeemer. One such reading is offered by Pierre Bersuire’s contemporaneous Reductorium Morale (c. 1325-1337):

Let us speak allegorically and say that Orpheus, the child of the sun, is Christ the son of God the Father, who from the beginning led Eurydice, that is, the human soul to himself. And from the beginning Christ joined her to himself through his special prerogative. But the devil, a serpent, drew near the new bride, that is, created de novo, while she collected flowers that is, while she seized the forbidden apple, and bit her by temptation and killed her by sin, and finally she went to the world below. Seeing this, Christ-Orpheus wished himself to descend to the lower world and thus he retook his wife, that is, human nature, ripping her from the hands of the ruler of Hell himself; and he led her with him to the upper world, saying this verse from Canticles 2:10, “Rise up, my love, my fair one, and come away.[45]

Along with its anachronistic rendition of the myth, the narrative is also remarkable for its metafictional quality. Self-reflexivity in the poem creates a major displacement from the traditional interest of romance: rather than a knight errant, Orfeo is a virtuoso harper king, whose his art transports his listeners to otherworldly spheres. Through Orfeo’s minstrelsy, and the central symbol of the harp, the fictional world of romance and the real world of its audience are brought together, just as the gap between court and wilderness is bridged by its presence. Transcending place, the minstrel’s art is powerfully extolled.

E. P.

Text[46]

1 We redeth oft and findeth y-write,[47]

written

2 And this clerkes wele it wite,

these scholars; know

3 Layes that ben in harpin g

are in song

4 Ben y-founde of ferli thing:

composed; of marvelous things

5 Sum bethe of wer and sum of wo,

some are of war; grief

6 And sum of joie and mirthe also,

gaiety

7 And sum of trecherie and of gile,

guile

8 Of old aventours that fel while;

adventures; happened once

9 And sum of bourdes and ribaudy,

jokes; ribaldry

10 And mani ther beth of fairy.

the Otherworld

11 Of al thinges that men seth,

relate

12 Mest o love, forsothe, they beth.

most of; in truth

13 In Breteyne this layes were wrought,

Brittany these; made

14 First y-founde and forth y-brought,

composed; produced

15 Of aventours that fel bi dayes,

happened in olden times

16 Wherof Bretouns maked her layes.

their

17 When kinges might our y-here

anywhere hear

18 Of ani mervailes that ther were,

marvels

19 Thai token an harp in gle and game

took; minstrelsy

20 And maked a lay and gaf it name.

gave

21 Now of this aventours that weren y-falle

have happened

22 Y can tel sum, ac nought alle.

I; but

23 Ac herkneth, lordinges that ben trewe,

but listen

24 Ichil you telle of “Sir Orfewe.”

I will

25 Orfeo mest of ani thing

most

26 Lovede the gle of harping.

glee or music

27 Siker was everi gode harpour

sure; good

28 Of him to have miche honour.

much

29 Himself he lerned forto harp,

he taught himself to

30 And leyd theron his wittes scharp;

applied

31 He lerned so ther nothing was

in no way

32 A better harpour in no plas.

any place

33 In al the warld was no man bore

born

34 That ones Orfeo sat bifore –

once

35 And he might of his harping here -

hear

36 Bot he schuld thenche that he were

think

37 In on of the joies of Paradis,

one

38 Swiche melody in his harping is.

39 Orfeo was a king,

40 In Inglond an heighe lording,

high (great) lord

41 A stalworth man and hardi bo;

brave both

42 Large and curteys he was also.

generous; courtly

43 His fader was comen of King Pluto, [48]

descended from

44 And his moder of King Juno,

45 That sum time were as godes yhold

once; considered to be gods

46 For aventours that thai dede and told.

Did

47 This king sojournd in Traciens, [49]

dwelled

48 That was a cité of noble defens -

fortifications

49 For Winchester was cleped tho

called; then

50 Traciens, withouten no.

denial

51 The king hadde a quen of priis

queen of excellence

52 That was y-cleped Dame Heurodis, [50]

called

53 The fairest levedi, for the nones,

lady indeed

54 That might gon on bodi and bones,

walk [about] in

55 Ful of love and godenisse -

goodness

56 Ac no man may telle hir fairnise.

but; beauty

57 Bifel so in the comessing of May[51]

it happened; beginning

58 When miri and hot is the day,

merry (pleasant)

59 And oway beth winter schours,

away

60 And everi feld is ful of flours,

field

61 And blosme breme on everi bough

blossoms bright

62 Over al wexeth miri anought,

everywhere grow; enough

63 This ich quen, Dame Heurodis

same

64 Tok to maidens of priis,

two; refinement

65 And went in an undrentide

late morning

66 To play bi an orchardside,

enjoy themselves

67 To se the floures sprede and spring

68 And to here the foules sing.

hear; birds

69 Thai sett hem doun al thre

themselves

70 Under a fair ympe-tre,

grafted tree

71 And wel sone this fair quene

very quickly

72 Fel on slepe opon the grene.

asleep

73 The maidens durst hir nought awake,

dared

74 Bot lete hir ligge and rest take.

let her lie

75 So sche slepe til after none, [52]

slept; noon

76 That undertide was al y-done.

until midday; past

77 Ac, as sone as sche gan awake,

but; began [to]

78 Sche crid, and lothli bere gan make;

loathsome outcry made

79 Sche froted hir honden and hir fete,

rubbed; hands

80 And crached hir visage - it bled wete -

scratched her face; profusely

81 Hir riche robe hye al to-rett

she tore all to pieces

82 And was reveyd out of hir wit.

driven

83 The two maidens hir biside

84 No durst with hir no leng abide,

dared not; longer

85 Bot ourn to the palays ful right

ran; immediately

86 And told bothe squier and knight

87 That her quen awede wold,

their; was going mad

88 And bad hem go and hir at-hold.

bade them; seize

89 Knightes urn and levedis also,

ran; ladies

90 Damisels sexti and mo.

sixty and more[53]

91 In the orchard to the quen hye come,

they came

92 And her up in her armes nome,

their arms took

93 And brought hir to bed atte last,

94 And held hir there fine fast.

very securely

95 Ac ever she held in o cri

persisted in one

96 And wold up and owy.

wished [to go]; away

97 When Orfeo herd that tiding

heard

98 Never him nas wers for nothing.

had he been as grieved by anything

99 He come with knightes tene

came; ten

100 To chaumber, right bifor the quene,

101 And bi-held, and seyd with grete pité,

beheld [her]; sorrow

102 “O lef liif, what is te, [54]

dear life; with you

103 That ever yete hast ben so stille

who; yet; calm

104 And now gredest wonder schille?

but; cries strangely shrilly

105 Thy bodi, that was so white y-core,

exquisitely

106 With thine nailes is all to-tore.

torn to pieces

107 Allas! thy rode, that was so red,

face

108 Is al wan, as thou were ded;

pale, as [if]

109 And also thine fingres smale

slender

110 Beth al blodi and al pale.

111 Allas! thy lovesum eyyen to

lovely two eyes

112 Loketh so man doth on his fo!

As; foe

113 A, dame, ich biseche, merci!

114 Lete ben al this reweful cri,

let be; pitiful

115 And tel me what the is, and hou,

what’s bothering you; how

116 And what thing may the help now.”

117 Tho lay sche stille atte last

Then

118 And gan to wepe swithe fast,

very hard

119 And seyd thus the King to:

120 “Allas, mi lord, Sir Orfeo!

121 Sethen we first togider were,

Since

122 Ones wroth never we nere;

never once; angry [to each other]

123 Bot ever ich have yloved the

124 As mi liif and so thou me;

125 Ac now we mot delen ato;

must separate

126 Do thi best, for y mot go.”

I must

127 “Allas!” quath he, “forlorn icham!

utterly lost I am

128 Whider wiltow go, and to wham?

where will you; whom

129 Whider thou gost, ichil with the,

I will [go]

130 And whider y go, thou schalt with me.”

131 “Nay, nay, Sir, that nought nis!

cannot be

132 Ichil the telle al hou it is:

I will; all how

133 As ich lay this undertide

morning

134 And slepe under our orchardside,

135 Ther come to me to fair knightes,

two

136 Wele y-armed al to rightes,

quite properly

137 And bad me comen an heighing

bade; in haste

138 And speke with her lord the king.

Their

139 And ich answerd at ords bold,

with

140 Y durst nought, no y nold.

dared not, nor did I want to

141 Thai priked oyain as thai might drive;

they; as quickly

142 Tho com her king, also blive,

there

143 With an hundred knightes and mo,

more

144 And damisels an hundred also,

145 Al on snowe-white stedes;

146 As white as milke were her wedes. [55]

their garments

147 Y no seighe never yete bifore

saw

148 So fair creatours y-core.

exquisite

149 The king hadde a croun on hed;

crown

150 It nas of silver, no of gold red,

neither

151 Ac it was of a precious ston -

152 As bright as the sonne it schon.

sun

153 And as son as he to me cam,

154 Wold ich, nold ich, he me nam,

whether I wished or not he took me

155 And made me with him ride

156 Opon a palfray bi his side; [56]

palfrey

157 And brought me to his palays,

158 Wele atird in ich ways,

adorned; every way

159 And schewed me castels and tours,

towers

160 Rivers, forestes, frith with flours,

woods with flowers

161 And his riche stedes ichon.

gorgeous steeds each one

162 And sethen me brought oyain hom

afterwards; back home

163 Into our owhen orchard,

own

164 And said to me thus afterward,

165 “Loke, dame, tomorwe thatow be

that you

166 Right here under this ympe-tre,

167 And than thou schalt with ous go

us

168 And live with ous evermo.

evermore

169 And yif thou makest ous y-let,

a hindrance for us

170 Whar thou be, thou worst y-fet,

wherever; will be fetched

171 And totore thine limes al

torn apart; limbs

172 That nothing help the no schal;

173 And thei thou best so totorn,

though  you are so torn

174 Yete thou worst with ous y-born.”‘ 

yet; will be carried with us

175      When King Orfeo herd this cas,

matter

176 “O we!” quath he, “Allas, allas!

Woe

177 Lever me were to lete mi liif

I’d rather lose

178 Than thus to lese the quen, mi wiif!”

lose; wife

179 He asked conseyl at ich man,

advice from each person

180 Ac no man him help no can.

181 Amorwe the undertide is come

the next day; high noon

182 And Orfeo hath his armes y-nome,

taken

183 And wele ten hundred knightes with him,

184 Ich y-armed, stout and grim;

each; strong; fierce

185 And with the quen wenten he

186 Right unto that ympe-tre.

187 Thai made scheltrom in ich a side

a rank of armed men on each

188 And sayd thai wold there abide

189 And dye ther everichon,

die; everyone

190 Er the quen schuld fram hem gon.

before; from

191 Ac yete amiddes hem ful right

yet amidst them straightaway

192 The quen was oway y-twight,

snatched

193 With fairi forth y-nome.

enchantment; taken

194 Men wist never wher sche was bicome.

never knew

195 Tho was ther criing, wepe and wo!

then

196 The king into his chaumber is go,

went

197 And oft swoned opon the ston,

swooned; stone (floor)

198 And made swiche diol and swiche mon

such dole; moan

199 That neighe his liif was y-spent -

almost; ended

200 Ther was non amendement.

no remedy for it

201 He cleped togider his barouns,

called

202 Erls, lordes of renouns,

203 And when thai al y-comen were,

204 “Lordinges,” he said, “bifor you here

205 Ich ordainy min heighe steward

I ordain; high

206 To wite mi kingdom afterward;

rule; henceforth

207 In mi stede ben he schal

in my place

208 To kepe mi londes overal.

209 For now ichave mi quen y-lore,

I have; lost

210 The fairest levedi that ever was bore,

lady; born

211 Never eft y nil no woman se.

will I see another woman

212 Into ilderness ichil te

I will go

213 And live ther evermore

214 With wilde bestes in holtes hore;

woods grey

215 And when ye understond that y be spent,

dead

216 Make you than a parlement,

217 And chese you a newe king.

choose

218 Now doth your best with al mi thing.”

do; affairs

219 Tho was ther wepeing in the halle

then

220 And grete cri among hem alle;

221 Unnethe might old or yong

hardly; young

222 For wepeing speke a word with tong.

223 Thai kneled adoun al y-fere

together

224 And praid him, yif his wille were,

prayed

225 That he no schuld nought fram hem go.

from them

226 “Do way!” quath he, “It schal be so!”

enough!

227 Al his kingdom he forsoke;

228 Bot a sclavin on him he toke.

only; pilgrim’s mantle

229 He no hadde kirtel no hode,

had neither tunic nor hood

230 Schert, ne no nother gode,

shirt; goods

231 Bot his harp he tok algate

at any rate

232 And dede him barfot out atte gate;

passed barefoot

233 No man most with him go.

might

234 O way! What ther was wepe and wo,

woe!

235 When he that hadde ben king with croun

236 Went so poverlich out of toun!

in such poverty out of his town

237 Thurth wode and over heth

through; heath

238 Into the ilderness he geth.

Goes

239 Nothing he fint that him is ays,

finds; for him; comfort

240 Bot ever he liveth in gret malais.

distress

241 He that hadde y-werd the fowe and griis,

worn the variegated and grey fur

242And on bed the purper biis,

purple linen

243 Now on hard hethe he lith,

heath; lies

244 With leves and gresse he him writh.

covers himself

245 He that hadde had castels and tours,

towers

246 River, forest, frith with flours,

woodland; flowers

247 Now, thei it comenci to snewe and frese,

although it begins; snow; freeze

248 This king mot make his bed in mese.

must; moss

249 He that had y-had knightes of priis

excellence

250 Bifor him kneland, and levedis,

kneeling; ladies

251 Now seth he nothing that him liketh,

sees; pleases

252 Bot wilde wormes bi him striketh.

snakes; glide

253 He that had y-had plenté

plenty 

254 Of mete and drink, of ich deynté,

delicacy

255 Now may he al day digge and wrote

dig; grub

256 Er he finde his fille of rote.

Roots

257 In somer he liveth bi wild frut,

fruit

258 And berien bot gode lite;

berries of little worth

259 In winter may he nothing finde

260 Bot rote, grases, and the rinde.

except roots; bark

261 Al his bodi was oway dwine

away dwindled

262 For missays, and al to-chine.

hardship; chapped

263 Lord! who may telle the sore

sorrow

264 This king sufferd ten yere and more?

265 His here of his berd, blac and rowe, [57]

hair; beard; rough

266 To his girdel-stede was growe.

waist

267 His harp, whereon was al his gle,

pleasure

268 He hidde in an holwe tre;

hollow

269 And when the weder was clere and bright,

weather

270 He toke his harp to him wel right

271 And harped at his owhen wille.

played; own desire

272 Into alle the wode the soun gan schille,

sound began to resound

273 That alle the wilde bestes that ther beth

274 For joie abouten him thai teth,

gathered

275 And alle the foules that ther were

birds

276 Come and sete on ich a brere

sat; briar

277 To here his harping a-fine -

278 So miche melody was therin;

much

279 And when he his harping lete wold,

would leave off

280 No best bi him abide nold.

Beast; would remain

281 He might se him bisides,

nearby

282 Oft in hot undertides,

283 The king o fairy with his rout

of fairyland; company

284 Com to hunt him al about

285 With dim cri and bloweing,

blowing [of horns]

286 And houndes also with him berking;

barking

287 Ac no best thai no nome,

but they took no beast (game)

288 No never he nist whider they bicome

knew; where they went

289 And other while he might him se

at other times

290 As a gret ost bi him te,

army; went

291 Wele atourned, ten hundred knightes,

equipped

292 Ich y-armed to his rightes,

all properly armed

293 Of cuntenaunce stout and fers,

appearance

294 With mani desplaid baners,

displayed

295 And ich his swerd y-drawe hold -

296 Ac never he nist whider thai wold.

knew not whither; went

297 And otherwile he seighe other thing:

saw

298 Knightes and levedis com daunceing

299 In queynt atire, gisely,

elegant; skillfully

300 Queynt pas and softly;

graceful steps

301 Tabours and trunpes yede hem bi,

drums and trumpets went

302 And al maner menstraci.

sorts of minstrelsy

303 And on a day he seighe him biside

on a certain day

304 Sexti levedis on hors ride,

sixty ladies

305 Gentil and jolif as brid on ris;

lively as bird on bough

306 Nought o man amonges hem ther nis;

not a single man was with them

307 And ich a faucoun on hond bere,

each a falcon on [her] hand

308 And riden on haukin bi o rivere.

a-hawking by a

309 Of game thai founde wel gode haunt -

great plenty

310 Maulardes, hayroun, and cormeraunt;

mallards, heron; cormorant

311 The foules of the water ariseth,

312 The faucouns hem wele deviseth;

marked

313 Ich faucoun his pray slough -

each; prey killed

314 That seigh Orfeo, and lough:

saw; laughed

315”Parfay!” quath he, “ther is fair game;

by my faith

316 Thider ichil, bi Godes name;

I’ll [go]

317 Ich was y-won swiche werk to se!”

I was wont such sport

318 He aros, and thider gan te.

began [to] approach

319 To a levedi he was y-come,

perceived

320 Biheld, and hath wele undernome,

saw

321 And seth bi al thing that it is

322 His owhen quen, Dam Heurodis.

Own

323 Yern he biheld hir, and sche him eke,

eagerly; also

324 Ac noither to other a word no speke;

but neither

325 For messais that sche on him seighe,

sadness

326 That had ben so riche and so heighe,

327 The teres fel out of her eighe.

Eye

328 The other levedis this y-seighe

saw

329 And maked hir oway to ride –

away

330 Sche most with him no lenger abide.

Might

331 “Allas!” quath he, “now me is wo!”

332 Whi nil deth now me slo?

will not; slay

333 Allas, wreche, that y no might  

334 Dye now after this sight!

335 Allas! to long last mi liif,

too long lasts my life

336 When y no dar nought with mi wiif,

337 No hye to me, o word speke.

nor she; one

338 Allas! Whi nil min hert breke!

will not

339 Parfay!” quath he, “tide wat bitide,

come what may

340 Whiderso this levedis ride,

wherever these

341 The selve way ichil streche -

same; hasten

342 Of liif no deth me no reche.”

nor; I do not care

343 His sclavain he dede on also spac

pilgrim’s gown he put on quickly

344 And henge his harp opon his bac,

345 And had wel gode wil to gon -

very good desire

346 He no spard noither stub no ston.

avoided; stump

347 In at a roche the levedis rideth,

into a rock

348 And he after, and nought abideth.

349 When he was in the roche y-go,

gone

350 Wele thre mile other mo,

351 He com into a fair cuntray

country

352 As bright so sonne on somers day,

as sun on summer’s

353 Smothe and plain and al grene -

smooth and level

354 Hille no dale nas ther non y-sene.

was not to be seen

355 Amidde the lond a castel he sighe,

saw

356 Riche and real and wonder heighe.

royal; wonderously high

357 Al the utmast wal

all [of] the outermost wall

358 Was clere and schine as cristal;

bright

359 An hundred tours ther were about,

360 Degiselich and bataild stout. 

wonderful with strong battlements

361 The butras com out of the diche

buttresses; moat

362 Of rede gold y-arched riche.

363 The vousour was avowed al

vaulting; adorned

364 Of ich maner divers aumal.

With every kind of enamel

365 Within ther wer wide wones,

were spacious dwellings

366 Al of precious stones;

367 The werst piler on to biholde

368 Was al of burnist gold.

burnished

369 Al that lond was ever light,

370 For when it schuld be therk and night,

dark

371 The riche stones light gonne

stone’s light shone

372 As bright as doth at none the sonne.

Noon

373 No man may telle, no thenche in thought,

nor think

374 The riche werk that ther was wrought.

375 Bi al thing him think that it is

exquisite

376 The proude court of Paradis. [58]

Paradise 

377 In this castel the levedis alight;

dismounted

378 He wold in after, yif he might.

wished to enter if

379 Orfeo knokketh atte gate;

380 The porter was redi therate

381 And asked what he wold hav y-do.

Done

382 “Parfay!” quath he, “icham a minstrel, lo!

I am

383 To solas thi lord with mi gle,

entertain; my minstrelsy

384 Yif his swete wille be.”

385 The porter undede the gate anon

undid

386 And lete him into the castel gon.

387 Than he gan bihold about al,

388 And seighe liggeand within the wal

lying

389 Of folk that were thider y-brought

390 And thought dede, and nare nought.

seemed dead, but were not

391 Sum stode withouten hade,

stood; head

392 And sum non armes nade,

had no arms

393 And sum thurth the bodi hadde wounde,

through

394 And sum lay wode, y-bounde,

mad

395 And sum armed on hors sete,

seat

396 And sum astrangled as thai ete;

they ate

397 And sum were in water adreynt,

drowned

398 And sum with fire al forschreynt.

shriveled

399 Wives ther lay on childe bedde,

400 Sum ded and sum awedde,

driven mad

401 And wonder fele ther lay bisides

wondrous many

402 Right as thai slepe her undertides;

just as; their

403 Eche was thus in this warld y-nome,

taken

404 With fairi thider y-come.

enchantment brought there

405 Ther he seighe his owhen wiif,

406 Dame Heurodis, his lef liif,

dear life

407 Slepe under an ympe-tre -

408 Bi her clothes he knewe that it was he.

she

409 And when he hadde bihold this mervails alle,

these marvels

410 He went into the kinges halle.

411 Than seighe he ther a semly sight,

fair

412 A tabernacle blisseful and bright,

canopy beautiful

413 Therin her maister king sete

their

414 And her quen, fair and swete.

415 Her crounes, her clothes schine so bright

their

416 That unnethe bihold he him might.

scarcely

417 When he hadde biholden al that thing,

418 He kneled adoun bifor the king:

419 “O lord,” he seyd, “yif it thi wille were,

420 Mi menstraci thou schust y-here.”

should hear

421 The king answered, “What man artow,

are you

422 That art hider y-comen now?

423 Ich, no non that is with me,

neither I, nor no one

424 No sent never after the.

you

425 Sethen that ich here regni gan,

since; reign

426 Y no fond never so folehardi man

foolhardy

427 That hider to ous durst wende

to us dared come

428 Bot that ic him wald ofsende.”

unless I wished him summoned

429 “Lord,” quath he, “trowe ful wel,

believe 

430 Y nam bot a pover menstrel;

431 And, sir, it is the maner of ous

432 To seche mani a lordes hous -

seek many

433 Thei we nought welcom no be,

though we may not be welcome

434 Yete we mot proferi forth our gle.”

must offer; entertainment

435 Bifor the king he sat adoun

436 And tok his harp so miri of soun,

merry; sound

437 And tempreth his harp, as he wele can,

tunes; knows well [how to do]

438 And blisseful notes he ther gan,

began

439 That al that in the palays were

440 Com to him forto here,

hear

441 And liggeth adoun to his fete -

lie

442 Hem thenketh his melody so swete.

they think

443 The king herkneth and sitt ful stille;

listens; sits quietly

444 To here his gle he hath gode wille.

his (Orfeo’s); he (the king)

445 Gode bourde he hadde of his gle;

great pleasure; songs

446 The riche quen also hadde he.

She

447 When he hadde stint his harping,

stopped

448 Than seyd to him the king,

449 “Menstrel, me liketh wel thi gle.

450 Now aske of me what it be,

what[ever] you wish

451 Largelich ichil the pay;

generously

452 Now speke, and tow might asay.”

if you wish to find out

453 “Sir,” he seyd, “ich biseche the

beseech you

454 Thatow woldest give me

that you

455 That ich levedi, bright on ble,

same; of complexion

456 That slepeth under the ympe-tree.”

457 “Nay!” quath the king, “that nought nere!

that could never be

458 A sori couple of you it were,

ill-matched

459 For thou art lene, rowe and blac,

lean, rough

460 And sche is lovesum, withouten lac;

beautiful; blemish

461 A lothlich thing it were, forthi,

loathly; therefore

462 To sen hir in thi compayni.”

to see

463 “O sir!” he seyd, “gentil king,

464 Yete were it a wele fouler thing

much more disgraceful

465 To here a lesing of thi mouthe! [59]

hear a lie from

466 So, sir, as ye seyd nouthe,

just now

467 What ich wold aski, have y schold,

might ask [for]; I should

468 And nedes thou most thi word hold.”

by necessity

469 The king seyd, “Sethen it is so,

Since

470 Take hir bi the hond and go;

471 Of hir ichil thatow be blithe.”

I wish that you be happy

472 He kneled adoun and thonked him swithe.

swiftly

473 His wiif he tok bi the hond,

474 And dede him swithe out of that lond,

475 And went him out of that thede -

country

476 Right as he come, the way he yede.

went

477 So long he hath the way y-nome

found

478 To Winchester he is y-come,

479 That was his owhen cité;

480 Ac no man knewe that it was he.

but

481 No forther than the tounes ende

further; town’s

482 For knoweleche no durst he wende,

he did not want to be recognized

483 Bot with a begger, y-bilt ful narwe,

 [whose house] was very small

484 Ther he tok his herbarwe

lodging

485 To him and to his owhen wiif

for himself and for hi own wife

486 As a minstrel of pover liif,

poor life

487 And asked tidinges of that lond,

land

488 And who the kingdom held in hond.

489 The pover begger in his cote

cottage

490 Told him everich a grot:

every scrap

491 Hou her quen was stole owy,

their; away

492 Ten yer gon, with fairy,

ago; by magic

493 And hou her king en exile yede,

into; went

494 But no man nist in wiche thede;

no one knew; country

495 And how the steward the lond gan hold,

began 

496 And other mani thinges him told.

497 Amorwe, oyain nonetide,

the next day, towards noon

498 He maked his wiif ther abide;

stay

499 The beggers clothes he borwed anon

500 And heng his harp his rigge opon,

upon his back

501 And went him into that cité

502 That men might him bihold and se.

503 Erls and barouns bold,

504 Buriays and levedis him gun bihold.

burgesses (citizens)

505 “Lo!” thai seyd, “swiche a man!

506 Hou long the here hongeth him opan!

hair; upon

507 Lo! Hou his berd hongeth to his kne!

508 He is y-clongen also a tre!”

gnarled like

509 And, as he yede in the strete,

went

510 With his steward he gan mete,

511 And loude he sett on him a crie:

he (Orfeo); him (the steward)

512 “Sir steward!” he seyd, “merci!

513 Icham an harpour of hethenisse;

I am; from heathendom

514 Help me now in this destresse!”

515 The steward seyd, “Com with me, come;

516 Of that ichave, thou schalt have some.

what I have

517 Everich gode harpour is welcom me to

518 For mi lordes love, Sir Orfeo.”

519 In the castel the steward sat atte mete,

520 And mani lording was bi him sete;

521 Ther were trompours and tabourers,

trumpeters; drummers

522 Harpours fele, and crouders -

many; stringplayers[60]

523 Miche melody thai maked alle.

524 And Orfeo sat stille in the halle

525 And herkneth; when thai ben al stille,

526 He toke his harp and tempred schille;

tuned it loudly

527 The blissefulest notes he harped there

most beautiful

528 That ever ani man y-herd with ere -

529 Ich man liked wele his gle.

minstrelsy

530 The steward biheld and gan y-se,

began to perceive

531 And knewe the harp als blive.

at once

532 “Menstrel!” he seyd, “so mot thou thrive,

if you wish to thrive

533 Where hadestow this harp, and hou?

did you get; how

534 Y pray that thou me telle now.”

535 “Lord,” quath he, “in uncouthe thede

unknown land

536 Thurth a wildernes as y yede,

went

537 Ther y founde in a dale

538 With lyouns a man totorn smale,

torn in small pieces

539 And wolves him frete with teth so scharp.

had devoured

540 Bi him y fond this ich harp;

same

541 Wele ten yere it is y-go.”

542 “O!” quath the steward, “now me is wo!

543 That was mi lord, Sir Orfeo!

544 Allas, wreche, what schal y do,

545 That have swiche a lord y-lore?

lost

546 A, way that ich was y-bore!

O, woe; born

547 That him was so hard grace y-yarked,

to him; bitter fortune was allotted

548 And so vile deth y-marked!”

[a] death was ordained

549 Adoun he fel aswon to grounde;

in a faint

550 His barouns him tok up in that stounde

moment

551 And telleth him how it geth -

it (the world)

552 “It is no bot of mannes deth!”

there is no remedy for man’s death!

553 King Orfeo knewe wele bi than

554 His steward was a trewe man

true

555 And loved him as he aught to do,

ought

556 And stont up, and seyt thus, “Lo,

557 Steward, herkne now this thing:

558 Yif ich were Orfeo the king,

very long ago

559 And hadde y-suffred ful yore

560 In wildernisse miche sore,

sorrow

561 And hadde ywon mi quen o-wy

won away

562 Out of the lond of fairy,

563 And hadde y-brought the levedi hende

gracious lady

564 Right here to the tounes ende,

565 And with a begger her in y-nome,

had placed her

566 And were mi-self hider y-come

567 Poverlich to the, thus stille,

in poverty

568 For to ssay thi gode wille,

test

569 And ich founde the thus trewe,

570 Thou no schust it never rewe.

should never regret it

571 Sikerlich, for love or ay,

surely

572 Thou schust be king after mi day;

should

573 And yif thou of mi deth hadest ben blithe,

but if; happy

574 Thou schust have voided, also swithe.”

been banished immediately

575 Tho all tho that therin sete

then all those

576 That it was King Orfeo underyete,

recognized that it was

577 And the steward him wele knewe -

578 Over and over the bord he threwe,

overturned the table

579 And fel adoun to his fet;

his (Orfeo’s)

580 So dede everich lord that ther sete,

581 And all thai seyd at o criing:

in one cry

582 “Ye beth our lord, sir, and our king!”

583 Glad thai were of his live;

life

584 To chaumber thai ladde him als belive

led him immediately

585 And bathed him and schaved his berd,

beard 

586 And tired him as a king apert;

clothed; openly

587 And sethen, with gret processioun,

afterwards

588 Thai brought the quen into the toun

589 With al maner menstraci -

590 Lord! ther was grete melody!

591 For joie thai wepe with her eighe

their eyes

592 That hem so sounde y-comen seighe.

593Now King Orfeo newe coround is,

newly crowned

594 And his quen, Dame Heurodis,

595 And lived long afterward,

596 And sethen was king the steward.

597 Harpours in Bretaine after than

and after [that]

598 Herd hou this mervaile bigan,

599 And made herof a lay of gode likeing,

made of it; great delight

600 And nempned it after the king.

named

601 That lay “Orfeo” is y-hote;

called

602 Gode is the lay, swete is the note.

good

603 Thus com Sir Orfeo out of his care:

sorrow

604 God graunt ous alle wele to fare! Amen!

well

Explicit.

the end

Select bibliography and websites:

Context

Brown, Peter (ed.). A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

Mincoff, Marco. A History of English Literature. Sofia, Pleiad, 1998.

Saunders, Corinne. A Companion to Medieval Poetry. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

Wallace, David et al. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Text

Manuscript:

National Library of Scotland MS Advocates 19.2.1, fols. 299a (stub)-303ra; also known as the Auchinleck MS (A). British Library MS Harley 3810, fols. 1a-10a (H).

Bodleian Library MS Ashmole 61, fols. 151a-156a (B).

Facsimile Edition:

The Auchinleck Manuscript. National Library of Scotland. Advocates MS. 19.2.1. With introduction by Derek Pearsall and I. C. Cunningham. London: Scolar Press, in association with The National Library of Scotland, 1979.

Editions:

Bliss, A. J., ed. Sir Orfeo. London: Oxford University Press, 1954. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966. [Prints all three MSS. Reconstructs a thirty-eight line prologue for A out of the prologue to Lay le Freine and H and B.]

http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot

Collections:

Burrow, John A., ed. English Verse 1300-1500. Longman Annotated Anthologies of English Verse, Vol. I. London: Longman, 1977,. 4-27.

Dunn, Charles W., and Edward T. Byrnes, eds. Middle English Literature. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973,  216-30

Ford, Boris, ed. The Age of Chaucer The Pelican Guide to English Literature I. Baltimore: Penguin, 1955. Pp. 271-88.

Schmidt, A. V. C., and Nicolas Jacobs, eds. Medieval English Romances. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1980, Vol. I. Pp. 151-71. [A text with twenty-four line prologue.]

Sisam, Celia and Kenneth, eds. The Oxford Book of Medieval English Verse. London: Oxford University Press, 1970. Pp. 76-98. [A text with twenty-four line prologue.]

Sisam, Kenneth, ed. Fourteenth Century Verse and Prose. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975, 13-31.

Criticism:

Friedman, John B. Orpheus in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970.

Grimaldi, Patrizia. “Sir Orfeo as Celtic Folk-Hero, Christian Pilgrim, and Medieval King.” In Allegory, Myth, and Symbol. Edited by Morton W. Bloomfield, Harvard English Studies 9. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981, 147-61.

Gros Louis, Kenneth R. R. “The Significance of Sir Orfeo’s Self-Exile.” Review of English Studies n.s. 18 (1967), 245-52.

Hynes-Berry, Mary. “Cohesion in King Horn and Sir Orfeo.” Speculum 50 (1975), 652-70.

Lerer, Seth. “Artifice and Artistry in Sir Orfeo.” Speculum 60 (1985), 92-109.

Liuzza, Roy Michael. “Sir Orfeo: Sources, Traditions, and the Poetics of Performance.” Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 21 (1991), 269-84.

Afterlife:

After J. R. R. Tolkien’s death, his son Christopher Tolkien discovered an unfinished translation of Sir Orfeo and published it together with his father’s translations of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Pearl.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nBlbaIbyCgI

The Thrush and the Nightingale

The Thrush and the Nightingale is a short Middle English debate poem. The text has come down to us in two manuscripts: Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Digby 86 (written between 1275 and 1300), and the Auchinleck manuscript, Edinburgh, National Library of Scotland, MS 19.2.1 (written around 1330). The two versions differ considerably, so the text below follows the more complete Digby 86. Birds occupy a very special place in medieval beast literature. Due to their great variety and elaborate social structures, as well as their natural ability to communicate vocally, birds have been compared to humans ever since the Classical period. In the Middle Ages they become typical characters in debate poetry both on the Continent and the British Isles. In England The Thrush and the Nightingale is closely related to the longer and more complex poem The Owl and the Nightingale, Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Parliament of Fowls, and later The Cuckoo and the Nightingale. In all these works the use of birds is inextricably related to the topic of love which often leads to discussions of women’s nature. In The Thrush and the Nightingale the clearly male Thrush vehemently attacks women, while the female Nightingale defends them. The Thrush draws from a wide range of sources and builds a solid and well-structured argument providing many examples from the Bible, classical history and myth, Arthurian romance, and even from his own experience – as a male human rather than as a bird. However, in at the end of the poem when the Nightingale invokes the Virgin Mary as a representative of the female sex, the Thrush immediately recants and declares defeat.

G.N.

Text

Ci comence le cuntent parentre la Mauuis et la Russinole

Here begins the argument between the Thrush and the Nightingale

1 Somer is comen with loue to toune

love; town

2 With blostme and with brides roune

blossom; bird song

3 The note of hasel springeth

hazelnut shoots

4 The dewes darkneth in the dale

darken

5 For longing of the nightegale

6 This foweles murie singeth

birds; merry

7 Hic herde a strif bitweies two,

heard; strife; between

8 That on of wele, that other of wo,

well; woe

9 Bitwene two ifere;

companions

10 That on hereth wimmen, that hoe beth hende,

praised women that they are nice

11 That other hem wole with mighte shende;

wanted to ruin them forcefully

12 That strif ye mowen ihere.

may hear

13 The nightingale is on bi nome

one by name

14 That wol shilden hem from shome;

shield them from shame

15 Of skathe hoe wole hem skere.

free them from blame

16 The threstelcok hem kepeth ay;

thrustlecock[61]; attacked

17 He seith bi nighte and eke bi day

said; also

18 That hy beth fendes ifere,

they are all fiends

19 For hy biswiketh euchan man

they deceive each man

20 That mest bileueth hem ouppon;

most believes upon them

21 They hy ben milde of chere,

mild of cheer

22 Hoe beth fikele and fals to fonde,

turn out to be fickle and false

23 Hoe wercheth wo in euchan londe

they cause woe everywhere

24 Hit were betere that hy nere!

we would be better off without them

25 ‘Lo, it is shome to blame leuedy,

shame; ladies

26 For hy beth hende of corteisy;

nice and courteous

27 Ich rede that thou lete.

tell you to let go

28 Ne wes neuere bruche so strong

breach

29 Ibroke with righte ne with wrong

made

30 That wimon ne mighte bete.

woman may not beat.

31 Hy gladieth hem that beth wrothe,

gladden; wroth

32 Bothe the heye and the lowe,

high

33 Mid gome hy cunne hem grete;

with care; can; greet

34 This world nere nout yif wimon nere,

naught; without women

35 Imaked hoe wes to mones fere;

she was created as man’s companion[62]

36 Nis nothing also swete.’

as

37 ‘I ne may wimen herien nohut,

praise; naught

38 For hy beth swikele and false of thohut,

treacherous; false of thought

39 Also Ich am ounderstonde.

understand

40 Hy beth feire and bright on hewe,

faire and bright in hew

41 Here thout is fals and ountrewe,

untrue

42 Ful yare Ich haue hem fonde.

many years have I observed them

43 Alisaundre the king meneth of hem;

Alexander[63]; moaned (complained)

44 In the world nes non so crafti mon,

there was never a man so wise

45 Ne non so riche of londe.

rich in land.

46 I take witnesse of monie and fele

I take witness of many

47 That riche weren of worldes wele,

wealth

48 Muche wes hem the shonde.’

shame

49 The Nightingale, hoe wes wroth:

she

50 ‘Fowel, me thinketh thou art me loth,

bird; loath

51 Sweche tales for to showe.

such

52 Among a thousent leuedies itolde

of whom stories have been told

53 Ther nis non wickede iholde

not one

54 Ther hy sitteth on rowe.

row

55 Hy beth of herte meke and milde,

of heart meek and mild

56 Hemself hy cunne from shome shilde

shield themselves from shame

57 Withinne boures wowe,

within bower’s walls

58 And swettoust thing in armes to wre,

sweetest; wreath

59 The mon that holdeth hem in gle,

glee

60 Fowel, wi ne art thou hit icnowe?’

why; acknowledge

61 ‘Gentil fowel, seist thou hit me?

do you say it to me?

62 Ich habbe with hem in bour ibe;

have been in their bower

63 I haued al mine wille.

I obtained all my desire.

64 Hy willeth for a luitel mede

they are willing for a small reward

65 Don a sunfoul derne dede

do a sinful secret deed

66 Here soule for to spille.

their souls by which to spill

67 Fowel, me thinketh thou art les;

liar

68 They thou be milde and softe of pes,

soft of peace

69 Thou seyst thine wille.

you say what you want to

70 I take witnesse of Adam,

71 That wes oure furste man,

was our first

72 That fond hem wycke and ille.’

wicked and mean

73 ‘Threstelcok, thou art wod,

you are mad

74 Other thou const to luitel goed

understanding is of little good

75 This wimmen for to shende.

to slander these women

76 Hit is the swetteste driwerie

the sweetest lovers

77 And mest hoe counnen of curteisie;

know the most about courtesy

78 Nis nothing also hende.

there is nothing so handsome

79 The mest murthe that mon haueth here

the most mirth that man has here[64]

80 Wenne hoe is maked to his fere

when she is made his companion

81 In armes for to wende.

in his arms to go

82 Hit is shome to blame leuedi;

shameful to blame the ladies

83 For hem thou shalt gon sori,

for them; shall be sorry

84 Of londe Ich wille the sende!’

out of the land

85 ‘Nightingale, thou hauest wrong,

86 Wolt thou me senden of this lond,

will you

87 For Ich holde with the rightte.

because I support the right side

88 I take witnesse of Sire Wawain,

Sir Gawain[65]

89 That Iesu Crist yaf might and main

gave power

90 And strengthe for to fightte.

fight

91 So wide so he heuede igon

as he has travelled

92 Trewe ne founde he neuere non,

he never found one true woman

93 Bi daye ne bi nightte.’

by day or by night

94 ‘Fowel, for thi false mouth,

for your

95 Thi sawe shal ben wide couth;

known

96 I rede the fle with mightte!

advise; flee

97 Ich habbe leue to ben here,

I have leave to be here

98 In orchard and in erbere

arbour

99 Mine songes for to singe.

100 Herdi neuere bi no leuedi

I never heard of a lady

101 Bote hendinese and curteysi,

that was not nice and courteous

102 And ioye hy gunnen me bringe.’

they bring me joy

103 ‘Of muchele murthe hy telleth me,

much mirth

104 Fere, also I telle the,

my friend, I am telling you

105 Hy liuieth in longinge.’

they live in desire

106 ‘Fowel, thou sitest on hasel bou,

bough

107 Thou lastest hem, thou hauest wou,

blame them; wrong

108 Thi word shal wide springe.’

disseminate widely

109 ‘Hit springeth wide, wel Ich wot,

I know well

110 Thou tel hit him that hit not,

tell those who do not know

111 This sawes ne beth nout newe.

sayings

112 Fowel, herkne to mi sawe, 

listen

113 Ich wile the telle of here lawe;

their law

114 Thou ne kepest nout hem, I knowe.

you don’t abide by them

115 Thenk on Costantines quene--

think of Constantine’s queen[66]

116 Foul wel hire semede fow and grene--

full well she looked in royal robes

117 Hou sore hit gon hire rewe,

how sore was her reward

118 Hoe fedde crupel in hire bour,

she lured a cripple to her bower

119 And helede him with couertour---

hid; bedcover

120 Loke war wimmen ben trewe!’

see whether

121 ‘Threstelkok, thou hauest wrong,

122 Also I sugge one mi song,

as I say in one of my songs

123 And that men witeth wide;

know far and wide

124 Hy beth brighttore ounder shawe

they are brighter

125 Then the day wenne hit dawe

when it dawns

126 In longe someres tide.

127 Come thu heuere in here londe,

you ever; their land

128 Hy shulen don the in prisoun stronge,

they will put you in a strong prison

129 And ther thou shalt abide;

there

130 The lesinges that thou hauest maked

lies

131 Ther thou shalt hem forsake,

recant

132 And shome the shal bitide.’

you will be shamed

133 ‘Nighttingale, thou seist thine wille,

you say what you want

134 Thou seist that wimmen shulen me spille

will kill me

135 Datheit wo hit wolde!

to hell with him who would

136 In holi bok hit is ifounde

the Holy Book

137 Hy bringeth moni mon to grounde

many men

138 That prude weren and bolde.

proud and bold

139 Thenk oupon Samsun the stronge,

think of Samson[67]

140 Hou muchel is wif him dude to wronge;

much; did

141 Ich wot that hoe him solde.

I know that she sold him

142 Hit is that worste hord of pris

the worst hoard of worth

143 That Iesu makede in Parais

Jesus; Paradise

144 In tresour for to holde.’

treasury

145 Tho seide the Nighttingale, 

Then

146 ‘Fowel, wel redi is thi tale;

well ready is your

147 Herkne to mi lore.

listen to my lore

148 Hit is flour that lasteth longe,

flower

149 And mest iherd in eueri londe,

most honoured

150 And louelich under gore.

lovely

151 In the worlde nis non so goed leche,

leech=doctor

152 So milde of thoute, so feir of speche,

thought; fair of speech,

153 To hele monnes sore.

to heal man’s sores

154 Fowel, thou rewest al mi thohut,

raves

155 Thou dost euele, ne geineth the nohut,

evil

156 Ne do thou so nammore!’

nevermore

157 ‘Nightingale, thou art ounwis

unwise

158 On hem to leggen so muchel pris;

to lay so much value on them

159 Thi mede shal ben lene.

your reward shall be lean

160 Among on houndret ne beth fiue,

one

161 Nouther of maidnes ne of wive

neither maidens, nor wives

162 That holdeth hem al clene,

preserve themselves

163 That hy ne werchethe wo in londe

who cause no woe

164 Other bringeth men to shonde

or bring men to shame

165 And that is wel iseene.

166 And they we sitten therfore to striuen

argue

167 Bothe of maidnes and of wiue,

168 Soth ne seist thou ene.’

you have not said even one truth

169 ‘O fowel, thi mouth the haueth ishend

your mouth has shamed you

170 Thoru wam wel al this world iwend,

the womb that changed all this world, meek

171 Of a maide meke and milde;

child

172 Of hire sprong that holi bern

born

173 That boren wes in Bedlehem,

174 And temeth al that is wilde.

tamed all that is wild

175 Hoe ne weste of sunne ne of shame,

she did not know sin or shame

176 Marie wes ire righte name,

her

177 Crist hire ishilde!

may Christ protect her

178 Fowel, for thi false sawe

for your false words

179 Forbeddi the this wode shawe,

you this wood

180 Thou fare into the filde!’

go; field

181 ‘Nightingale, I wes woed,

mad

182 Other I couthe to luitel goed

what I knew was of ittle good

183 With the for to striue.

to strive with you

184 I suge that Icham ouercome

I admit that I am overcome

185 Thoru hire that bar that holi sone

her who bore that holy son

186 That soffrede woundes fiue.

suffered five wounds

187 Hi swerie bi his holi name,

swear

188 Ne shal I neuere suggen shame

I will never cause shame

189 Bi maidnes ne bi wiue.

neither; nor

190 Hout of this londe willi te,

I will out of this land

191 Ne rechi neuere weder I fle,

reach; flee

192 Awai Ich wille driue!’

away will I go

Select bibliography and websites:

Context

Brown, Peter (ed.). A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

Mincoff, Marco. A History of English Literature. Sofia, Pleiad, 1998.

Saunders, Corinne. A Companion to Medieval Poetry. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

Wallace, David et al. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Text

An online edition with introduction, complete translation of the poem and footnotes can be found at: http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~wpwt/digby86/thrushint.htm

The Auchinleck version of the poem with introduction, glosses and footnotes is freely available at: http://www.csun.edu/~sk36711/WWW/engl443/thrush.pdf

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

The anonymous Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is the masterpiece of medieval English romance. It is found in a single 14th century manuscript of the Cotton collection (Cotton MS Nero A.X.), together with three other alliterative works, probably authored by the same poet: Pearl, a dream vision poem, the didactic Cleanness, or Purity, denouncing filth, and Patience, extolling the respective virtue through the Old Testament story of Jonah. The poems were probably composed in the North Midlands circa 1370.

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is an alliterative Arthurian romance about the chivalric virtue of courtesy. In the English tradition, courtesy, or civilised conduct, was embodied by Sir Gawain. The poem’s treatment of courtesy is remarkable for its sophistication: this virtue turns out to make complex demands on the individual, clashing with his natural instincts. The complexities an ideal code imposes on Gawain are suggested through a highly patterned narrative movement, inviting an allegorical reading of structure and number.

The poem opens at Arthur’s palace Camelot with a Christmas celebration, a festive time of plenty and wish-fulfillment, but also of marvels and topsyturvydom. The fellowship of Arthur’s knights is in its prime, like the year itself, and the newborn Saviour. Arthur, however, is unwilling to start the feast unless he is informed of some unusual event. His demand is immediately met with the entrance of a strange knight, enormous, green of hue, dressed in green, and riding a green horse. Challenging Arthur’s knights, he proposes to receive a blow in case he should return it in a year’s time.  It is Sir Gawain that has the stamina to stand up for the Knights of the Round Table. He cuts off the stranger’s head but the body, quite alive, picks it up and speaks to Gawain:

‘Be prepared to perform what you promised, Gawain;

Seek faithfully till you find me, my fine fellow,

According to your oath in this hall in these knights’ hearing.

Go to the green Chapel without gainsaying to get

Such a stroke as you have struck. Strictly you deserve

That due redemption on the day of New Year. (I, 24-9)

Fears are partly assuaged by the mention of “Christmas game”, “interludes”, and “repast”, which lends the episode an overtly theatrical quality. Medieval folk theatre like the St. George plays involved the occasional staging of resurrection rituals which may have prompted the Beheading Game of Sir Gawain.

As the poem’s further, heavily patterened narrative movement suggests,  its  chief interest is in the inward quest. The true antagonist of its chivalric hero is equally internalised: it is Sir Gawain’s quite human failure to ignore his personal safety for the sake of an abstract, though highly ennobling moral code.

Written in the dialect of the West Midlands, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight consciously stylises and archaises its poetic language. It depends on a hybridisation of alliterative and rhyming techniques. Its stanzas comprise a varying number of alliterative long lines, rounded off by “the bob and the wheel”, five shorter cross-rhymed lines, which either sum up the narrative, or comment upon it.

E. P.

Text

Paul Deane’s translation below can be accessed freely at: http://alliteration.net/Pearl.htm

1 SIÞEN þe sege and þe assaut watz sesed at Troye,

The siege and assault having ceased at Troy[68]

2 Þe borȝ brittened and brent to brondeȝ and askez,

as its blazing battlements blackened to ash,

3 Þe tulk þat þe trammes of tresoun þer wroȝt

the man who had plotted that treason

4 Watz tried for his tricherie, þe trewest on erthe:

had trial enough for the truest traitor[69]!

5 Hit watz Ennias þe athel, and his highe kynde,

Then Aeneas the prince and his honored line

6 Þat siþen depreced prouinces, and patrounes bicome

plundered provinces and held in their power

7 Welneȝe of al þe wele in þe west iles.

nearly all the wealth of the western isles.

8 Fro riche Romulus to Rome ricchis hym swyþe,

Thus Romulus swiftly arriving at Rome[70]

9 With gret bobbaunce þat burȝe he biges vpon fyrst,

sets up that city and in swelling pride

10 And neuenes hit his aune nome, as hit now hat;

gives it his name, the name it now bears;

11 Tirius to Tuskan and teldes bigynnes,

and in Tuscany Ticius raises up towns,

12 Langaberde in Lumbardie lyftes vp homes,

and in Lombardy Langoberde settles the land,

13 And fer ouer þe French flod Felix Brutus

and far past the French coast Felix Brutus

14 On mony bonkkes ful brode Bretayn he settez

founds Britain[71] on broad hills, and so bright hopes

15 wyth wynne,

begin,

16 Where werre and wrake and wonder

where wonders, wars, misfortune

17 Bi syþez hatz wont þerinne,

and troubled times have been,

18 And oft boþe blysse and blunder

where bliss and blind confusion

19 Ful skete hatz skyfted synne.

have come and gone again.

20 Ande quen þis Bretayn watz bigged bi þis burn rych,

From the founding of Britain by this brave prince,

21 Bolde bredden þerinne, baret þat lofden,

bold men have bred there, burning for war,

22 In mony turned tyme tene þat wroȝten.

stirring up turmoil through the turning years.

23 Mo ferlyes on þis folde han fallen here oft

More wonders in the world have been witnessed here

24 Þen in any oþer þat I wot, syn þat ilk tyme.

than anywhere else from that age forward.

25 Bot of alle þat here bult, of Bretaygne kynges,

But of all who were crowned kings over Britain

26 Ay watz Arthur þe hendest, as I haf herde telle.

the most honor was Arthur’s, as old tales tell.

27 Forþi an aunter in erde I attle to schawe,

So I mean to make known a marvel on earth,

28 Þat a selly in siȝt summe men hit holden,

an astonishing sight, as some men call it,

29 And an outtrage awenture of Arthurez wonderez.

an extraordinary exploit among Arthur’s wonders.

30 If ȝe wyl lysten þis laye bot on littel quile,

Listen to this lay for a little while

31 I schal telle hit as-tit, as I in toun herde,

and as townsmen tell it, so this tale will trip

32 with tonge,

along,

33 As hit is stad and stoken

a story pinned in patterns

34 In stori stif and stronge,

steadfast, steady, strong:

35 With lel letteres loken,

aligned in linking letters[72]

36 In londe so hatz ben longe.

as folk have loved so long.

37 Þis kyng lay at Camylot vpon Krystmasse

One Christmas in Camelot[73] King Arthur sat

38 With mony luflych lorde, ledez of þe best,

at ease with his lords and loyal liegemen

39 Rekenly of þe Rounde Table alle þo rich breþer,

arranged as brothers round the Round Table.

40 With rych reuel oryȝt and rechles merþes.

Their reckless jokes rang about that rich hall

41 Þer tournayed tulkes by tymez ful mony,

till they turned from the table to the tournament field

42 Justed ful jolilé þise gentyle kniȝtes,

and jousted like gentlemen with lances and laughs,

43 Syþen kayred to þe court caroles to make.

then trooped to court in a carolling crowd.

44 For þer þe fest watz ilyche ful fiften dayes,

For the feast lasted a full fifteen days

45 With alle þe mete and þe mirþe þat men couþe avyse;

of meals and merriment (as much as could fit.)

46 Such glaum ande gle glorious to here,

Such gay glee must gladden the ear --

47 Dere dyn vpon day, daunsyng on nyȝtes,

by day what a din, and dancing by night!

48 Al watz hap vpon heȝe in hallez and chambrez

The halls and chambers were heaped with happy

49 With lordez and ladies, as leuest him þoȝt.

lords and ladies as high as you like!

50 With all þe wele of þe worlde þay woned þer samen,

There they were gathered with all the world’s goodness:

51 Þe most kyd knyȝtez vnder Krystes seluen,

knights as kind as Christ himself,

52 And þe louelokkest ladies þat euer lif haden,

ladies as lovely as ever have lived,

53 And he þe comlokest kyng þat þe court haldes;

and the noblest king our nation has known.

54 For al watz þis fayre folk in her first age,

They were yet in the pride, in the prime of their youth,

55 on sille,

and filled

56 Þe hapnest vnder heuen,

as full of heaven’s blessing

57 Kyng hyȝest mon of wylle;

as the king had strength of will.

58 Hit were now gret nye to neuen

And mighty men surpassing

59 So hardy a here on hille.

all were gathered on that hill.

60 Wyle Nw Ȝer watz so ȝep þat hit watz nwe cummen,

While the year was as young as New Years can be

61 Þat day doubble on þe dece watz þe douth serued.

the dais was prepared for a double feast.

62 Fro þe kyng watz cummen with knyȝtes into þe halle,

The king and his company came in together

63 Þe chauntré of þe chapel cheued to an ende,

when mass had been chanted; and the chapel emptied

64 Loude crye watz þer kest of clerkez and oþer,

as clergy and commons alike cried out,

65 Nowel nayted onewe, neuened ful ofte;

“Noel! Noel! “ again and again.

66 And syþen riche forth runnen to reche hondeselle,

And the lords ran around loaded with parcels,

67 Ȝeȝed ȝeres-ȝiftes on hiȝ, ȝelde hem bi hond,

palms extended to pass out presents,

68 Debated busyly aboute þo giftes;

or crowded together comparing gifts.

69 Ladies laȝed ful loude, þoȝ þay lost haden,

The ladies laughed when they lost at a game

70 And he þat wan watz not wrothe, þat may ȝe wel trawe.

(that the winner was willing, you may well believe!)

71 Alle þis mirþe þay maden to þe mete tyme;

Round they milled in a merry mob till the meal was ready,

72 When þay had waschen worþyly þay wenten to sete,

washed themselves well, and walked to their places

73 Þe best burne ay abof, as hit best semed,

(the best for the best on seats raised above.[74])

74 Whene Guenore, ful gay, grayþed in þe myddes,

Then Guinevere moved gaily among them,

75 Dressed on þe dere des, dubbed al aboute,

took her place on the dais, which was dearly adorned

76 Smal sendal bisides, a selure hir ouer

with sides of fine silk and a canopied ceiling

77 Of tryed tolouse, and tars tapites innoghe,

of sheer stuff: and behind her shimmering tapestries from far Tarsus,

78 Þat were enbrawded and beten wyth þe best gemmes

embroidered, bedecked with bright gems

79 Þat myȝt be preued of prys wyth penyes to bye,

that the jewelers would pay a pretty price for

80 in daye.

any day,

81 Þe comlokest to discrye

but the finest gem in the field of sight

82 Þer glent with yȝen gray,

looked back: her eyes were grey.

83 A semloker þat euer he syȝe

That a lovelier’s lived to delight

84 Soth moȝt no mon say.

the gaze - is a lie, I’d say!

85 Bot Arthure wolde not ete til al were serued,

But Arthur would not eat till all were served.

86 He watz so joly of his joyfnes, and sumquat childgered:

He bubbled to the brim with boyish spirits:

87 His lif liked hym lyȝt, he louied þe lasse

liked his life light, and loathed the thought

88 Auþer to longe lye or to longe sitte,

of lazing for long or sitting still longer.

89 So bisied him his ȝonge blod and his brayn wylde.

So his young blood boiled and his brain ran wild,

90 And also an oþer maner meued him eke

And in many ways moved him still more

91 Þat he þurȝ nobelay had nomen, he wolde neuer ete

as a point of honor never to eat

92 Vpon such a dere day er hym deuised were

on a high holiday till he should have heard

93 Of sum auenturus þyng an vncouþe tale,

a strange story of stirring adventures,

94 Of sum mayn meruayle, þat he myȝt trawe,

of mighty marvels to make the mind wonder,

95 Of alderes, of armes, of oþer auenturus,

of princes, prowess, or perilous deeds.

96 Oþer sum segg hym bisoȝt of sum siker knyȝt

Or someone might come, seeking a knight

97 To joyne wyth hym in iustyng, in jopardé to lay,

to join him in jousting, enjoying the risk

98 Lede, lif for lyf, leue vchon oþer, Page  4

of laying their lives on the line like men

99 As fortune wolde fulsun hom, þe fayrer to haue.

leaving to fortune the choice of her favor.

100 Þis watz þe kynges countenaunce where he in court were,

This was the king’s custom at court,

101 At vch farand fest among his fre meny

the practice he followed at pleasant feasts held

102 in halle.

in his hall;

103 Þerfore of face so fere

therefore with bold face

104 He stiȝtlez stif in stalle,

he stood there straight and tall.

105 Ful ȝep in þat Nw Ȝere

As New Years proceeded apace

106 Much mirthe he mas withalle.

he meant to have mirth with them all.

107 Thus þer stondes in stale þe stif kyng hisseluen,

So he stood there stock-still, a king standing tall,

108 Talkkande bifore þe hyȝe table of trifles ful hende.

talking of courtly trifles before the high table.

109 There gode Gawan watz grayþed Gwenore bisyde,

By Guinevere sat Gawain the Good,

110 And Agrauayn a la dure mayn on þat oþer syde sittes,

and Agravaine of the Heavy Hand[75] on the other side:

111 Boþe þe kynges sistersunes and ful siker kniȝtes;

knights of great worth, and nephews to the king.

112 Bischop Bawdewyn abof biginez þe table,

Baldwin, the bishop, was above, by the head[76],

113 And Ywan, Vryn son, ette with hymseluen.

with Ywain, Urien’s son[77], sitting across.

114 Þise were diȝt on þe des and derworþly serued,

These sat at the dais and were served with due honor;

115 And siþen mony siker segge at þe sidbordez.

and many mighty men were seated on either side.

116 Þen þe first cors come with crakkyng of trumpes,

Then the first course came with a clamor of trumpets

117 Wyth mony baner ful bryȝt þat þerbi henged;

whose banners[78] billowed bright to the eye,

118 Nwe nakryn noyse with þe noble pipes,

while kettledrums[79] rolled and the cry of the pipes

119 Wylde werbles and wyȝt wakned lote,

wakened a wild, warbling music

120 Þat mony hert ful hiȝe hef at her towches.

whose touch made the heart tremble and skip.

121 Dayntés dryuen þerwyth of ful dere metes,

Delicious dishes were rushed in, fine delicacies

122 Foysoun of þe fresche, and on so fele disches

fresh and plentiful, piled so high on so many platters

123 Þat pine to fynde þe place þe peple biforne

they had problems finding places to set down

124 For to sette þe sylueren þat sere sewes halden

their silver bowls of steaming soup: no spot

125 on clothe.

was clear.

126 Iche lede as he loued hymselue

Each lord dug in with pleasure,

127 Þer laght withouten loþe;

and grabbed at what lay near:

128 Ay two had disches twelue,

twelve platters piled past measure,

129 Good ber and bryȝt wyn boþe.

bright wine, and foaming beer.

130 Now wyl I of hor seruise say yow no more,

I need say no more how they served the food,

131 For vch wyȝe may wel wit no wont þat þer were.

for what fool would fancy their feast was a famine?

132 An oþer noyse ful newe neȝed biliue,

But a new noise announced itself quickly enough

133 Þat þe lude myȝt haf leue liflode to cach;

to grant the high lord leave to have dinner.

134 For vneþe watz þe noyce not a whyle sesed,

The music had finished but a moment before,

135 And þe fyrst cource in þe court kyndely serued,

the first course just served, and set before the court,

136 Þer hales in at þe halle dor an aghlich mayster,

when a horrible horseman hurtled through the doors,

137 On þe most on þe molde on mesure hyghe;

his body as brawny as any can be,

138 Fro þe swyre to þe swange so sware and so þik,

so bull-necked, big-thighed, bulky and square,

139 And his lyndes and his lymes so longe and so grete,

so long-legged, large-limbed, looming so tall

140 Half etayn in erde I hope þat he were,

I can hardly tell if he were half troll,

141 Bot mon most I algate mynn hym to bene,

or merely as large as living man can be

142 And þat þe myriest in his muckel þat myȝt ride;

a handsome one too; as hearty a hulk as ever rode horse.

143 For of bak and of brest al were his bodi sturne,

His back and chest were broad as a barrel,

144 Both his wombe and his wast were worthily smale,

but he slimmed at the waist, with a slender stomach,

145 And alle his fetures folȝande, in forme þat he hade,

and his face was well formed, with features sharp

146 ful clene;

and clean --

147 For wonder of his hwe men hade,

Men sat there gaping, gasping

148 Set in his semblaunt sene;

at his strange, unearthly sheen,

149 He ferde as freke were fade,

as if a ghost were passing,

150 And oueral enker-grene.

for every inch was green[80].

151 Ande al grayþed in grene þis gome and his wedes:

He was got up in green from head to heel:

152 A strayte cote ful streȝt, þat stek on his sides,

a tunic worn tight, tucked to his ribs;

153 A meré mantile abof, mensked withinne

and a rich cloak cast over it, covered inside

154 With pelure pured apert, þe pane ful clene

with a fine fur lining, fitted and sewn

155 With blyþe blaunner ful bryȝt, and his hod boþe,

with ermine trim that stood out in contrast

156 Þat watz laȝt fro his lokkez and layde on his schulderes;

from his hair where his hood lay folded flat;

157 Heme wel-haled hose of þat same,

and handsome hose of the same green hue

158 Þat spenet on his sparlyr, and clene spures vnder

which clung to his calves, with clustered spurs

159 Of bryȝt golde, vpon silk bordes barred ful ryche,

of bright gold; beneath them striped embroidered silk

160 And scholes vnder schankes þere þe schalk rides;

above his bare shanks, for he rode shoeless[81].

161 And alle his vesture uerayly watz clene verdure,

His clothes were all kindled with a clear light like emeralds:

162 Boþe þe barres of his belt and oþer blyþe stones,

His belt buckles sparkled, and bright stones were set

163 Þat were richely rayled in his aray clene

in rich rows arranged up and down

164 Aboutte hymself and his sadel, vpon silk werkez.

himself and his saddle. Worked in the silk

165 Þat were to tor for to telle of tryfles þe halue

were too many trifles to tell the half of:

166 Þat were enbrauded abof, wyth bryddes and flyȝes,

embroidered birds, butterflies, and other things

167 With gay gaudi of grene, þe golde ay inmyddes.

in a gaudy glory of green and inlaid gold.

168 Þe pendauntes of his payttrure, þe proude cropure,

And the bit and bridle, the breastplate on the horse,

169 His molaynes, and alle þe metail anamayld was þenne,

and all its tackle were trimmed with green enamel,

170 Þe steropes þat he stod on stayned of þe same,

even the saddlestraps, the stirrups on which he stood,

171 And his arsounz al after and his aþel skyrtes,

and the bows of his saddle with its billowing skirts

172 Þat euer glemered and glent al of grene stones;

which glimmered and glinted with green jewels.

173 Þe fole þat he ferkkes on fyn of þat ilke,

The stallion that bore him was the best of its breed

174 sertayn,

it was plain,

175 A grene hors gret and þikke,

a green horse great and strong,

176 A stede ful stif to strayne,

that sidled, danced and strained,

177 In brawden brydel quik--

but the bridle-braid led it along,

178 To þe gome he watz ful gayn.

turning as it was trained.

179 Wel gay watz þis gome gered in grene,

He was a fine fellow fitted in green --

180 And þe here of his hed of his hors swete.

And the hair on his head and his horse’s matched.

181 Fayre fannand fax vmbefoldes his schulderes;

It fanned out freely enfolding his shoulders[82],

182 A much berd as a busk ouer his brest henges,

and his beard hung below as big as a bush,

183 Þat wyth his hiȝlich here þat of his hed reches

all mixed with the marvelous mane on his head,

184 Watz euesed al vmbetorne abof his elbowes,

which was cut off in curls cascading to his elbows,

185 Þat half his armes þer-vnder were halched in þe wyse

wrapping round the rest of him

186 Of a kyngez capados þat closes his swyre;

like a king’s cape clasped to his neck.

187 Þe mane of þat mayn hors much to hit lyke,

And the mane of his mount was much the same,

188 Wel cresped and cemmed, wyth knottes ful mony

but curled up and combed in crisp knots,

189 Folden in wyth fildore aboute þe fayre grene,

in braids of bright gold thread and brilliant green

190 Ay a herle of þe here, an oþer of golde;

criss-crossed hair by hair.

191 Þe tayl and his toppyng twynnen of a sute,

And the tossing tail was twin to the mane,

192 And bounden boþe wyth a bande of a bryȝt grene,

for both were bound with bright green ribbons,

193 Dubbed wyth ful dere stonez, as þe dok lasted,

strung to the end with long strands of precious stones,

194 Syþen þrawen wyth a þwong a þwarle knot alofte,

and turned back tight in a twisted knot

195 Þer mony bellez ful bryȝt of brende golde rungen.

bright with tinkling bells of burnished gold.

196 Such a fole vpon folde, ne freke þat hym rydes,

No such horse on hoof had been seen in that hall,

197 Watz neuer sene in þat sale wyth syȝt er þat tyme,

nor horseman half so strange as their eyes now held

198 with yȝe.

in sight.

199 He loked as layt so lyȝt,

He looked a lightning flash,

200 So sayd al þat hym syȝe;

they say: he seemed so bright;

201 Hit semed as no mon myȝt

and who would dare to clash

202 Vnder his dynttez dryȝe.

in melee with such might?

203 Wheþer hade he no helme ne hawbergh nauþer,

Yet he had on no hauberk, nor a helmet for his head,

204 Ne no pysan ne no plate þat pented to armes,

neither neck-guard nor breastplate to break heavy blows,

205 Ne no schafte ne no schelde to schwue ne to smyte,

neither shaft nor shield for the shock of combat.

206 Bot in his on honde he hade a holyn bobbe,

But he held in one hand a sprig of holly[83]

207 Þat is grattest in grene when greuez ar bare,

that bursts out greenest when branches are bare;

208 And an ax in his oþer, a hoge and vnmete,

and his other hand hefted a huge and awful ax,

209 A spetos sparþe to expoun in spelle, quoso myȝt.

a broad battleax with a bit to tell (take it who can)

210 Þe lenkþe of an elnȝerde þe large hede hade,

with a large head four feet long:

211 Þe grayn al of grene stele and of golde hewen,

the green steel down the grain etched with gold,

212 Þe bit burnyst bryȝt, with a brod egge

its broad edge burnished and bright,

213 As wel schapen to schere as scharp rasores,

shaped razor-sharp to sheer through steel, and held high on a heavy staff

214 Þe stele of a stif staf þe sturne hit bi grypte,

which was bound at the base with iron bands

215 Þat watz wounden wyth yrn to þe wandez ende,

gracefully engraved in bright green patterns.

216 And al bigrauen with grene in gracios werkes;

A strap was strung through the steel head, running

217 A lace lapped aboute, þat louked at þe hede,

loop after loop down the length of the handle,

218 And so after þe halme halched ful ofte,

in abundance, attaching

219 Wyth tryed tasselez þerto tacched innoghe

which was tied with tassels

220 On botounz of þe bryȝt grene brayden ful ryche.

by rich braids onto bright green buttons.

221 Þis haþel heldez hym in and þe halle entres,

This rider reined in as he rode through the doors

222 Driuande to þe heȝe dece, dut he no woþe,

direct to the high dais without a word,

223 Haylsed he neuer one, bot heȝe he ouer loked.

giving no greeting, gazing down on them all.

224 Þe fyrst word þat he warp, ‘Wher is’, he sayd,

His first word came when he stopped. “Where,” he said,

225 ‘Þe gouernour of þis gyng? Gladly I wolde

“is the master of these men? I’ve a mind to see

226 Se þat segg in syȝt, and with hymself speke

his face and with the fellow who wears the crown.”

227 raysoun.’

would fancy a chat

228 To knyȝtez he kest his yȝe,

To each lord he turned

229 And reled hym vp and doun;

and glancing up and down

230 He stemmed, and con studie

he fixed each face to learn

231 Quo walt þer most renoun.

which knight held most renown.

232 Ther watz lokyng on lenþe þe lude to beholde,

They stared at the stranger, stunned, a very long time.

233 For vch mon had meruayle quat hit mene myȝt

For each man wondered what it might mean

234 Þat a haþel and a horse myȝt such a hwe lach,

that man and mount both shone a shade

235 As growe grene as þe gres and grener hit semed,

as green as the grass, and greener even

236 Þen grene aumayl on golde glowande bryȝter.

than green enamel glows when gold makes it brighter.

237 Al studied þat þer stod, and stalked hym nerre

All eyes were on him, and some edged closer,

238 Wyth al þe wonder of þe worlde what he worch schulde.

wondering what in the world he would do.

239 For fele sellyez had þay sen, bot such neuer are;

They had seen enough strange sights to know how seldom they are real;

240 Forþi for fantoum and fayryȝe þe folk þere hit demed.

therefore they feared him for a phantom, a sending from the Unseen Realm.

241 Þerfore to answare watz arȝe mony aþel freke,

So of all those noble knights, none dared answer

242 And al stouned at his steuen and stonstil seten

but sat there stupefied by the strength of his voice.

243 In a swoghe sylence þurȝ þe sale riche;

A silence fell filling that rich hall as if they’d all fainted

244 As al were slypped vpon slepe so slaked hor lotez in hyȝe

or suddenly slept: their voices just vanished at their height.

245 I deme hit not al for doute,

Some, I suppose, were not floored,

246 Bot sum for cortaysye--

but chose to be polite,

247 Bot let hym þat al schulde loute

letting their leader and lord

248 Cast vnto þat wyȝe.

be first to speak to that knight.

249 Þenn Arþour bifore þe hiȝ dece þat auenture byholdez,

Arthur stood watching adventure advance

250 And rekenly hym reuerenced, for rad was he neuer,

and answered quickly as honor bid, neither awed nor afraid,

251 And sayde, ‘Wyȝe, welcum iwys to þis place,

saying, “Wanderer, know you are welcome here.

252 Þe hede of þis ostel Arthour I hat;

The head of this hostel, Arthur is my name

253 Liȝt luflych adoun and lenge, I þe praye,

dismount, if you may; make merry as you wish,

254 And quat-so þy wylle is we schal wyt after.’

and we may learn in a little while what you would like.”

255 ‘Nay, as help me,’ quoþ þe haþel, ‘he þat on hyȝe syttes,

“So help me God who sits on high,” he said, “No.”

256 To wone any quyle in þis won, hit watz not myn ernde;

“It is not my purpose to pass any time in this place.

257 Bot for þe los of þe, lede, is lyft vp so hyȝe,

But I have been told that your reputation towers to heaven:

258 And þy burȝ and þy burnes best ar holden,

that your court and castle are accounted the finest,

259 Stifest vnder stel-gere on stedes to ryde,

your knights and their steeds as the sturdiest in steel,

260 Þe wyȝtest and þe worþyest of þe worldes kynde,

the best, the boldest, the bravest on earth,

261 Preue for to play wyth in oþer pure laykez,

and as fitting foes in any fine sport.

262 And here is kydde cortaysye, as I haf herd carp,

True knighthood is known here, or so the tale runs,

263 And þat hatz wayned me hider, iwyis, at þis tyme.

which is why I have come calling today.

264 Ȝe may be seker bi þis braunch þat I bere here

You may be sure by this branch that I bear

265 Þat I passe as in pes, and no plyȝt seche;

that I come in peace, with no plans for battle.

266 For had I founded in fere in feȝtyng wyse,

For I have my own strong castle

267 I haue a hauberghe at home and a helme boþe,

I have a hauberk at home, and a helmet too,

268 A schelde and a scharp spere, schinande bryȝt,

A shield and a sharp spear, shining bright

269 Ande oþer weppenes to welde, I wene wel, als;

and other weapons I know well how to wield.

270 Bot for I wolde no were, my wedez ar softer.

Yet as war is not my wish I am wearing soft silk,

271 Bot if þou be so bold as alle burnez tellen,

but, if you are as bold as men believe you to be,

272 Þou wyl grant me godly þe gomen þat I ask

you will be glad to grant me the game that is mine

273 bi ryȝt.’

by right.”

274 Arthour con onsware,

Then Arthur said, “I swear,”

275 And sayd, ‘Sir cortays knyȝt,

“most courteous, noble knight,

276 If þou craue batayl bare,

if you’d like to battle bare,

277 Here faylez þou not to fyȝt.’

you’ll not fail to find a fight.”

278 ‘Nay, frayst I no fyȝt, in fayth I þe telle,

“Never fear,” he said, “I’m not fishing for a fight

279 Hit arn aboute on þis bench bot berdlez chylder.

with the beardless children on the benches all about.

280 If I were hasped in armes on a heȝe stede,

If I were strapped on steel on a sturdy horse

290 Here is no mon me to mach, for myȝtez so wayke.

no man here has might to match me.

291 Forþy I craue in þis court a Crystemas gomen,

No, I have come to this court for a bit of Christmas fun

292 For hit is Ȝol and Nwe Ȝer, and here ar ȝep mony:

fitting for Yuletide and New Years with such a fine crowd.

293 If any so hardy in þis hous holdez hymseluen,

Who here in this house thinks he has what it takes,

294 Be so bolde in his blod, brayn in hys hede,

has bold blood and a brash head,

295 Þat dar stifly strike a strok for an oþer,

and dares to stand his ground, giving stroke for stroke?

296 I schal gif hym of my gyft þys giserne ryche,

Here! I shall give him this gilded blade as my gift;

297 Þis ax, þat is heué innogh, to hondele as hym lykes,

this heavy ax shall be his, to handle as he likes.

298 And I schal bide þe fyrst bur as bare as I sitte.

and I shall stand here bare of armor, and brave the first blow.

299 If any freke be so felle to fonde þat I telle,

If anyone’s tough enough to try out my game,

300 Lepe lyȝtly me to, and lach þis weppen,

let him come here quickly and claim his weapon!

301 I quit-clayme hit for euer, kepe hit as his auen,

I give up all rights; he will get it for keeps.

302 And I schal stonde hym a strok, stif on þis flet,

I’ll stand like a tree trunk -- he can strike at me once,

303 Ellez þou wyl diȝt me þe dom to dele hym an oþer

if you’ll grant me the right to give as good as I get

304 barlay,

in play[84].

305 And ȝet gif hym respite,

But later is soon enough,

306 A twelmonyth and a day;

a full year and a day[85].

307 Now hyȝe, and let se tite

Get up, if you think you’re rough,

308 Dar any herinne oȝt say.’

let’s see what you dare to say!”

309 If he hem stowned vpon fyrst, stiller were þanne

If at first he had stunned them, now they sat stone-still:

310 Alle þe heredmen in halle, þe hyȝ and þe loȝe.

the whole hall, both high and low.

311 Þe renk on his rouncé hym ruched in his sadel,

The mounted man moved in his saddle,

312 And runischly his rede yȝen he reled aboute,

glared a red glance[86] grimly about,

313 Bende his bresed broȝez, blycande grene,

arched his bushy brows, all brilliant and green,

314 Wayued his berde for to wayte quo-so wolde ryse.

his beard waving as he waited for one man to rise,

315 When non wolde kepe hym with carp he coȝed ful hyȝe,

to call or came forward. He coughed loudly,

316 Ande rimed hym ful richly, and ryȝt hym to speke:

stretched slowly, and straightened to speak.

317 ‘What, is þis Arthures hous,’ quoþ þe haþel þenne,

“Hah! They call this King Arthur’s house,

318 ‘Þat al þe rous rennes of þurȝ ryalmes so mony?

a living legend in land after land?

319 Where is now your sourquydrye and your conquestes,

Where have your pride and your power gone,

320 Your gryndellayk and your greme, and your grete wordes?

your bragging boasts, your big words?

321 Now is þe reuel and þe renoun of þe Rounde Table

The glories and triumphs of the Round Table

322 Ouerwalt wyth a worde of on wyȝes speche,

have toppled at the touch of one man’s words!

323 For al dares for drede withoute dynt schewed!’

What? Fainting with fear, when no fight is offered?”

324 Wyth þis he laȝes so loude þat þe lorde greued;

He let out a laugh so loud that Arthur winced

325 Þe blod schot for scham into his schyre face

with shame; the blood shot to his flushed face

326 and lere;

and churned

327 He wex as wroth as wynde,

with rage and raised a storm

328 So did alle þat þer were.

until their hearts all burned.

329 Þe kyng as kene bi kynde

All king in face and form,

330 Þen stod þat stif mon nere,

he reached that rider, turned,

331 Ande sayde, ‘Haþel, by heuen, þyn askyng is nys,

and said, “Look here, by heaven! Have you lost your mind?

332 And as þou foly hatz frayst, fynde þe behoues.

If you want to be mad, I will make you welcome!

333 I know no gome þat is gast of þy grete wordes;

Nobody I know is bowled over by your big words,

334 Gif me now þy geserne, vpon Godez halue,

so help me God! Hand me that ax --

335 And I schal bayþen þy bone þat þou boden habbes.’

I will grant you the gift you beg me to give!”

336 Lyȝtly lepez he hym to, and laȝt at his honde.

He leaped lightly up and lifted it from his hand.

337 Þen feersly þat oþer freke vpon fote lyȝtis.

Then the man dismounted, moving proudly,

338 Now hatz Arthure his axe, and þe halme grypez,

while Arthur held the ax, both hands on the haft,

339 And sturnely sturez hit aboute, þat stryke wyth hit þoȝt.

hefted it sternly, considered his stroke.

340 Þe stif mon hym bifore stod vpon hyȝt,

That burly man bulked big and tall,

341 Herre þen ani in þe hous by þe hede and more.

a head higher than anyone in the house.

342 Wyth sturne schere þer he stod he stroked his berde,

He stood there hard-faced, stroking his beard,

343 And wyth a countenaunce dryȝe he droȝ doun his cote,

impassively watching as he pulled off his coat,

344 No more mate ne dismayd for hys mayn dintez

no more moved or dismayed by his mighty swings

345 Þen any burne vpon bench hade broȝt hym to drynk

than anybody would be if somebody brought him a bottle

346 of wyne.

of wine.

347 Gawan, þat sate bi þe quene,

Gawain, sitting by the queen,

348 To þe kyng he can enclyne:

could tell the king his mind:

349 ‘I beseche now with saȝez sene

“Lord, hear well what I mean,

350 Þis melly mot be myne.

and let this match be mine.”

351 ‘Wolde ȝe, worþilych lorde,’ quoþ Wawan to þe kyng,

“Grant leave, good lord,” said Gawain to the king,

352 ‘Bid me boȝe fro þis benche, and stonde by yow þere,

“to stir from my seat and stand by your side;

353 Þat I wythoute vylanye myȝt voyde þis table,

that I might rise without rudeness from this table

354 And þat my legge lady lyked not ille,

without fear of offending your fair queen,

355 I wolde com to your counseyl bifore your cort ryche.

and come before your court as a counselor should.

356 For me þink hit not semly, as hit is soþ knawen,

It is plainly improper, as people know well,

357 Þer such an askyng is heuened so hyȝe in your sale,

to point this proposal at the prince himself.

358 Þaȝ ȝe ȝourself be talenttyf, to take hit to yourseluen,

Though you may be eager to act for yourself,

359 Whil mony so bolde yow aboute vpon bench sytten,

there are so many bold knights on the benches all about,

360 Þat vnder heuen I hope non haȝerer of wylle,

none more masterful in mind maybe than move under heaven,

361 Ne better bodyes on bent þer baret is rered.

nor many built better for the field of battle.

362 I am þe wakkest, I wot, and of wyt feblest,

Of all your men of war I am the weakest and least wise,

363 And lest lur of my lyf, quo laytes þe soþe

and my life little enough to lose, if you look at it clearly.

364 Bot for as much as ȝe ar myn em I am only to prayse,

My only honor is that you are my uncle;

365 No bounté bot your blod I in my bodé knowe;

my only boast is that my body carries your blood.

366 And syþen þis note is so nys þat noȝt hit yow falles,

Since this whole matter is such a mockery, it is not meant for you;

367 And I haue frayned hit at yow fyrst, foldez hit to me;

and I am first on the field: let this folly be mine.

368 And if I carp not comlyly, let alle þis cort rych

If my claim is uncalled-for let the court judge; I will bear

369 bout blame.’

the blame.”

370 Ryche togeder con roun,

They huddled hushed around

371 And syþen þay redden alle same

and all advised the same:

372 To ryd þe kyng wyth croun,

respect the royal crown,

373 And gif Gawan þe game.

and give Gawain the game.

374 Þen comaunded þe kyng þe knyȝt for to ryse;

Then the king commanded him to rise and come forward,

375 And he ful radly vpros, and ruchched hym fayre,

and he stood quickly, walked with stately steps

376 Kneled doun bifore þe kyng, and cachez þat weppen;

to kneel before the king and claim his weapon.

377 And he luflyly hit hym laft, and lyfte vp his honde,

Arthur handed it over and held up his hand

378 And gef hym Goddez blessyng, and gladly hym biddes

to give him God’s blessing. With a glad smile

379 Þat his hert and his honde schulde hardi be boþe.

he charged him to be hardy in heart.

380 ‘Kepe þe, cosyn,’ quoþ þe kyng, ‘þat þou on kyrf sette,

“Cousin, careful,” he said, “cut him but once.

381 And if þou redez hym ryȝt, redly I trowe

And if you teach him truly, I trust you will find

382 Þat þou schal byden þe bur þat he schal bede after.’

you can bear the blow that he brings you later.”

383 Gawan gotz to þe gome with giserne in honde,

Gawain went to the warrior, weapon in hand,

384 And he baldly hym bydez, he bayst neuer þe helder.

not the least bit bashful, as bold as can be.

385 Þen carppez to Sir Gawan þe knyȝt in þe grene,

Then the Green Knight said to Gawain,

386 ‘Refourme we oure forwardes, er we fyrre passe.

“We should go over our agreement before we begin.

387 Fyrst I eþe þe, haþel, how þat þou hattes

First, knight, I would know your name,

388 Þat þou me telle truly, as I tryst may.’

told truly as one I can trust.”

389 ‘In god fayth,’ quoþ þe goode knyȝt, ‘Gawan I hatte,

“My name is Gawain,” he said, “I give it in good faith,

390 Þat bede þe þis buffet, quat-so bifallez after,

as I will give you a blow and bear what comes after.

391 And at þis tyme twelmonyth take at þe an oþer

At this time in twelve months I will take a blow back

392 Wyth what weppen so þou wylt, and wyth no wyȝ ellez

from what weapon you wish, but from no other knight

393 on lyue.’

alive.”

394 Þat oþer onswarez agayn,

The other answering spoke,

395 ‘Sir Gawan, so mot I þryue

“Sir Gawain: good. I derive

396 As I am ferly fayn

great pleasure from the stroke

397 Þis dint þat þou schal dryue.

your hardy hands will drive.”

398 ‘Bigog,’ quoþ þe grene knyȝt, ‘Sir Gawan, me lykes

“Gad!” the Green Knight said. “Sir Gawain, I am glad

399 Þat I schal fange at þy fust þat I haf frayst here.

that your fist will fetch me the fun I hoped to find.

400 And þou hatz redily rehersed, bi resoun ful trwe,

You have quickly retold in trustworthy words

401 Clanly al þe couenaunt þat I þe kynge asked,

a correct account of the contract I asked of the king,

402 Saf þat þou schal siker me, segge, bi þi trawþe,

save[87] one stipulation that I must state: let it stand as your oath

403 Þat þou schal seche me þiself, where-so þou hopes

that you will seek me yourself, and search anywhere

404 I may be funde vpon folde, and foch þe such wages

you feel I may be found to fetch back the same wages

405 As þou deles me to-day bifore þis douþe ryche.’

I am paid today before this proud court.”

406 ‘Where schulde I wale þe,’ quoþ Gauan, ‘where is þy place?

“Where should I look?” Gawain asked, “Where do you live?”

407 I wot neuer where þou wonyes, bi hym þat me wroȝt,

“By Him that made me, your house is not known to me,

408 Ne I know not þe, knyȝt, by cort ne þi name.

neither do I know you, knight, nor your court nor your name.

409 Bot teche me truly þerto, and telle me how þou hattes,

But teach me truly, tell me where to find you

410 And I schal ware alle my wyt to wynne me þeder,

and I shall work my wits out to win my way there.

411 And þat I swere þe for soþe, and by my seker traweþ.’

I give my plain promise; I pledge you my word.”

412 ‘Þat is innogh in Nwe Ȝer, hit nedes no more’,

“That is enough for a New Year’s pledge; you need say no more,”

413 Quoþ þe gome in þe grene to Gawan þe hende;

So the green man answered gracious Gawain

414 ‘Ȝif I þe telle trwly, quen I þe tape haue

“If I’m telling the truth, why, when I’ve taken your tap,

415 And þou me smoþely hatz smyten, smartly I þe teche

and you’ve lopped me lovingly, you’ll learn at once

416 Of my hous and my home and myn owen nome,

of my house and my home and how I am named.

417 Þen may þou frayst my fare and forwardez holde;

Then you can try my hospitality and be true to our compact.

418 And if I spende no speche, þenne spedez þou þe better,

Or I’ll have no words to waste, which would be well for you:

419 For þou may leng in þy londe and layt no fyrre

you’d relax in this land, and not look for me further.

420 bot slokes!

But stop!

421 Ta now þy grymme tole to þe,

Take up the grim tool you need,

422 And let se how þou cnokez.’

and show me how you chop.”

423 ‘Gladly, sir, for soþe’,

“Gladly, sir,” he said, “Indeed,”

424 Quoþ Gawan; his ax he strokes.

and gave the ax a strop.

425 Þe grene knyȝt vpon grounde grayþely hym dresses,

The green knight got ready, feet firm on the ground;

426 A littel lut with þe hede, þe lere he discouerez,

leaned his head a little to let the cheek show,

427 His longe louelych lokkez he layd ouer his croun,

and raised the rich riot of his hair

428 Let þe naked nec to þe note schewe.

so the nape of his neck was naked and exposed.

429 Gauan gripped to his ax, and gederes hit on hyȝt,

Gawain held the ax high overhead,

430 Þe kay fot on þe folde he before sette,

his left foot set before him on the floor,

431 Let him doun lyȝtly lyȝt on þe naked,

swung swiftly at the soft flesh

432 Þat þe scharp of þe schalk schyndered þe bones,

so the bit of the blade broke through the bones,

433 And schrank þurȝ þe schyire grece, and schade hit in twynne,

crashed through the clear fat and cut it in two,

434 Þat þe bit of þe broun stel bot on þe grounde.

and the brightly burnished edge bit into the earth.

435 Þe fayre hede fro þe halce hit to þe erþe,

The handsome head fell, hit the ground,

436 Þat fele hit foyned wyth her fete, þere hit forth roled;

and rolled forward; they fended it off with their feet.

437 Þe blod brayd fro þe body, þat blykked on þe grene;

The red blood burst bright from the green body,

438 And nawþer faltered ne fel þe freke neuer þe helder,

yet the fellow neither faltered nor fell

439 Bot styþly he start forth vpon styf schonkes,

but stepped strongly out on sturdy thighs[88],

440 And runyschly he raȝt out, þere as renkkez stoden,

reached roughly right through their legs,

441 Laȝt to his lufly hed, and lyft hit vp sone;

grabbed his graceful head and lifted it from the ground,

442 And syþen boȝez to his blonk, þe brydel he cachchez,

ran to his horse, caught hold of the reins,

443 Steppez into stelbawe and strydez alofte,

stepped in the stirrup, strode into the saddle,

444 And his hede by þe here in his honde haldez;

the head dangling by the hair from his hand,

445 And as sadly þe segge hym in his sadel sette

and seated himself as firmly in the saddle

446 As non vnhap had hym ayled, þaȝ hedlez he were

as if he were unhurt, though he sat on his horse without

447 in stedde.

a head.

448 He brayde his bulk aboute,

He swiveled his bulk about;

449 Þat vgly bodi þat bledde;

the ugly stump still bled.

450 Moni on of hym had doute,

They gaped in fear and doubt

451 Bi þat his resounz were redde.

because of the words he said.

452 For þe hede in his honde he haldez vp euen,

For he held the head up evenly in his hand,

453 Toward þe derrest on þe dece he dressez þe face,

turned the face toward the top of the high table,

454 And hit lyfte vp þe yȝe-lyddez and loked ful brode,

and the eyelids lifted and looked on them all

455 And meled þus much with his muthe, as ȝe may now here:

while the mouth moved, making these words:

456 ‘Loke, Gawan, þou be grayþe to go as þou hettez,

“Gawain, get ready to go as you have promised,

457  And layte as lelly til þou me, lude, fynde,

Seek me out, sir; search till you find me

458 As þou hatz hette in þis halle, herande þise knyȝtes;

as sworn here in this hall where all these knights heard.

459 To þe grene chapel þou chose, I charge þe, to fotte

I charge you, come as you chose to the Green Chapel to get

460 Such a dunt as þou hatz dalt – disserued þou habbez

as good as you gave – you’ve got it coming

461 To be ȝederly ȝolden on Nw Ȝeres morn.

and will be paid promptly when another year has passed.

462 Þe knyȝt of þe grene chapel men knowen me mony;

Many men know me as the Knight of the Green Chapel,

463 Forþi me for to fynde if þou fraystez, faylez þou neuer.

so search faithfully and you’ll not fail to find me.

464 Þerfore com, oþer recreaunt be calde þe behoues.’

Come, or be called a faithless coward!”

465 With a runisch rout þe raynez he tornez,

He roared like a raging bull, turned the reins,

466 Halled out at þe hal dor, his hed in his hande,

and drove for the door, still dangling the head,

467 Þat þe fyr of þe flynt flaȝe fro fole houes.

while fire flashed from the horse’s feet as if its hooves were flints.

468 To quat kyth he becom knwe non þere,

Where he went no one knew,

469 Neuer more þen þay wyste from queþen he watz wonnen.

nor could they name the country he came from nor his kin.

470 What þenne?

What then?

471 Þe kyng and Gawen þare

The king and Gawain grinned

472 At þat grene þay laȝe and grenne,

and laughed at the Green Knight when

473 Ȝet breued watz hit ful bare

they knew full well it had been

474 A meruayl among þo menne.

a portent to their men.

475 Þaȝ Arþer þe hende kyng at hert hade wonder,

Though High King Arthur’s heart was heavy with wonder

476 He let no semblaunt be sene, bot sayde ful hyȝe

he let no sign of it be seen, but said aloud

477 To þe comlych quene wyth cortays speche,

with a king’s courtesy to his lovely queen:

478 ‘Dere dame, to-day demay yow neuer;

“Beloved lady, never let this dismay you.

479 Wel bycommes such craft vpon Cristmasse,

It is good to get such games at Christmas,

480 Laykyng of enterludez, to laȝe and to syng,

light interludes, laughter and song[89],

481 Among þise kynde caroles of knyȝtez and ladyez.

or the whole court singing carols in chorus.

482 Neuer þe lece to my mete I may me wel dres,

But truly, I can turn now to my table and feast;

483 For I haf sen a selly, I may not forsake.’

as my word is good, I have witnessed a wonder.”

484 He glent vpon Sir Gawen, and gaynly he sayde,

He turned to Sir Gawain and tactfully said,

485 ‘Now, sir, heng vp þyn ax, þat hatz innogh hewen’;

“Hang up your ax; it has cut all it can.”

486 And hit watz don abof þe dece on doser to henge,

It was attached to a tapestry above the high table

487 Þer alle men for meruayl myȝt on hit loke,

for all men to marvel on who might see it there,

488 And bi trwe tytel þerof to telle þe wonder.

as a true token of a tale of wonder.

489 Þenne þay boȝed to a borde þise burnes togeder,

Then they sat in their seats to resume their feast,

490 Þe kyng and þe gode knyȝt, and kene men hem serued

Gawain and the king together, while good men served them

491 Of alle dayntyez double, as derrest myȝt falle;

the rarest, dearest delicacies in double portions,

492 Wyth alle maner of mete and mynstralcie boþe,

with whole batteries of the best foods, and the singing of bards.

493 Wyth wele walt þay þat day, til worþed an ende

The day finished, and their feast was filled with joy

494 in londe.

and zest.

495 Now þenk wel, Sir Gawan,

Sir Gawain, have a care

496 For woþe þat þou ne wonde

to keep your courage for the test,

497 Þis auenture for to frayn

and do the deed you’ve dared.

498 Þat þou hatz tan on honde.

You’ve begun: now brave the rest.

Select bibliography and websites:

Context

Brewer, Elizabeth. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: Sources and Analogues.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973.

Brown, Peter (ed.). A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

Mincoff, Marco. A History of English Literature. Sofia: Pleiad, 1998.

Wallace, David et al. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00kvbny

http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedmanuscripts/TourArtGen.asp  

Text

Transcripts:

http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/cme/Gawain/1:1?rgn=div1;view=fulltext

http://www.yorku.ca/inpar/sggk_replica.pdf

Modern translations:

http://alliteration.net/Pearl.htm

http://www.yorku.ca/inpar/sggk_neilson.pdf

Introduction and passages from the original:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-nAd6fffVvs&feature=related 

Afterlife

Sword of the Valiant (1984), a film adaptation, starring Miles O’Keeffe as Gawain and Sean Connery as the Green Knight: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0084750/ 

The animated Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (2002): http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0846790/

Lynne Plowman’s opera Gwyneth and the Green Knight ( 2002).

The 2021 film The Green Knight, directed by David Lowery and starring Dev Patel. Official trailer at  https://www.imdb.com/video/vi1843249177/

Piers Plowman

Piers Plowman is an alliterative poem of the second half of the 14th century. Its 52 extant manuscripts suggest the great popularity it obviously enjoyed in its time. The poem exists in three versions, referred to as the A, B, and C text respectively. The A text is the earliest and shortest, while the C text is the most recent and longest. The A text could be dated back to 1362 (after the outburst of the Black Death), the B text to 1377 (after the death of Edward the Black Prince) and the C text to 1395-98 (the reign of Richard II). Some critics believe that, constantly expanded and elaborated,  the text was the work of a lifetime. It has also been suggested that

the three versions were produced by different hands. Scholarly interest typically focuses on the B version, which is more complete than the A text and artistically maturer than the C text. All versions are in the dialect of the West Midlands, much closer to Chaucer’s English than the language of the Gawain poet. In 1550 Robert Crowley printed the text with the conviction that it prefigured attitudes characteristic of the Reformation.

Like Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meun’s Le Roman de la Rose, or Dante’s Divine Comedy, Piers Plowman is a dream vision poem. Originating in Macrobius’ Somnium Scipionis, the genre became associated with the allegorical mode. In this mode, characters are personified abstractions, and antagonisms are a matter of the dreamer’s battle of the soul (psychomachia).

Passus XVIII of Piers Plowman contains the Eighth Vision of Will, its dreaming narrator. In this vision, Christ appears in the shape of a medieval knight to joust with the Devil in Piers Plowman’s armour, i.e., in human flesh. Expounding the doctrine of atonement and redemption, it is the climax of the entire poem.

The text is interspersed with fragments of Biblical history, especially from Christ’s entry into Jerusalem and the Crucifixion. The pivotal event is the Harrowing of Hell from the apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus (ca. 400), regarded as virtually canonical during the Middle Ages. At this point, Will’s anguished questioning about truth and salvation is answered: with the release of souls from Hell, Mercy and Peace are reconciled with Truth and Righteousness, both in the world and within the narrator’s soul. The Passus foretells the Saviour’s victory on Judgement Day. Significantly, as the dreamer awakens on Easter Day, the day of Christ’s Resurrection, his spiritual journey seems to reach an important climax of insightful fulfillment.

E.P.

Text

PASSUS XVIII (The Harrowing of Hell)

1 Wolleward and weetshoed wente I forth after

LINEN-LESS and wet-shod went I forth after,

2 As a recchelees renk that [reccheth of no wo],

As a reckless fellow that of no woe recks,

3 And yede forth lik a lorel al my lif tyme,

And went like a vagrant all my life,

4 Til I weex wery of the world and wilned eft to slepe,

Till I waxed weary of the world and wished to sleep again,

5 And lened me to a Lenten – and longe tyme I slepte;

And leaned me about till Lent and long time I slept;

6 Reste me there and rutte faste til ramis palmarum.

I rested and dreamed there, and snored fast till ramis palmarum;[90]

7 Of gerlis and of Gloria, laus gretly me dremed

Of children and of gloria laus[91] greatly me dreamed,

8 And how osanna by organye olde folk songen,

And how hosanna[92] to the organ[93] old folk sang.

9 And of Cristes passion and penaunce, the peple that ofraughte.

And of Christ’s passion and penance that the people saved

10 Oon semblable to the Samaritan, and somdeel to Piers the Plowman,

One like to the Samaritan and somewhat to Piers Plowman.

11 Barefoot on an asse bak bootles cam prikye,

Bare-foot on an ass’s back bootless came riding[94],

12 Withouten spores other spere; spakliche he loked,

Without spurs or spear lively he looked,

13 As is the kynde of a knyght that cometh to be dubbed,

As is the way with a knight that cometh to be dubbed,

14 To geten hym gilte spores on galoches ycouped.

To get him gilt spurs or shoes slashed.

15 Thanne was Feith in a fenestre, and cryde “At Fili David!”

Then was Faith in a window and cried “a! fili David!”[95]

16 As dooth an heraud of armes whan aventrous cometh to iustes.

As doth a herald at arms when the adventurous come to joust.

17 Olde Jewes of Jerusalem for joye thei songen,

Old Jews of Jerusalem for joy they sang,

18 Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini.

Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini.[96]

19 Thanne I frayned at Feith what al that fare bymente,

Then I asked of Faith what all that affair meant,

20 And who sholde juste in Jerusalem. “jesus,” he seide,

And who should joust in Jerusalem? “Jesus,” he said,

21 “And fecche that the fend claymeth – Piers fruyt the Plowman.”

“And fetch what the Fiend claimeth Piers’ fruit the Plowman.”

22 “Is Piers in this place?” quod I, and he preynte on me.

“Is Piers in this place?” quoth I and he looked on me,

23 “This Jesus of his gentries wol juste in Piers armes,

“This Jesus of his nobility will joust in Piers’ arms,

24 In his helm and in his haubergeon – humana natura.

In his helm and in his hauberk humana natura[97];

25 That Crist be noght biknowe here for consummatus Deus,

That Christ be not known here for consummatus Deus[98],

26 In Piers paltok the Plowman this prikiere shal ryde;

In Piers’ garment the Plowman this pricker shall ride;

27 For no dynt shal hym dere as in deitate Patris.”

For no dint shall him hurt as in deitate Patris.” [99]

28 “Who shal juste with Jesus?” quod I, “Jewes or scrybes?”

“Who shall joust with Jesus?” quoth I “Jews or scribes?”

29 “Nay,” quod Feith, “but the fend and fals doom to deye.

“Nay,” quoth He, “the foul Fiend and falsehood and death.

30 Deeth seith he shal fordo and adoun brynge

Death saith he will undo and down bring

31 Al that lyveth or loketh in londe or in watre.

All that liveth or looketh in land or in water.

32 Lif seith that he lieth, and leieth his lif to wedde

Life saith that he lies and laith his life to pledge,

33 That, for al that Deeth kan do, withinne thre daies to

That for all that death can do within three days,

34 And fecche fro the fend Piers fruyt the Plowman,

He will go and fetch from the Fiend Piers’ fruit the Plowman,

35 And legge it ther hym liketh, and Lucifer bynde,

And lay it where him liketh and Lucifer bind,

36 And forbete and adoun brynge bale-deeth for evere:

And beat and down bring sorrow and death for ever:

37 O Mors ero mors tua!”

O mors, ero mors tua![100]

38 Thanne cam Pilatus with muche peple, sedens pro tribunali,

Then came Pilatus with much people sedens pro tribunali[101],

39 To se how doghtiliche Deeth sholde do, and deme hir botheres right.

To see how doughtily death should do and judge the rights of both.

40 The Jewes and the justieeayeins Jesu thei weere,

The Jews and the justices against Jesus they were,

41 And al the court on hym cryde “Crucifige!” sharpe.

And all their court on him cried crucifige[102] sharp.

42 Tho putte hym forth a p[e]lour bifore Pilat and seide,

Then put forth a robber before Pilate, and said,

43 “This Jesus of oure Jewes temple japed and despised,

“This Jesus at our Jews’ temple japed and despised,

44 To fordoon it on o day, and in thre dayes after

To undo it on one day and in three days after

45 Edifie it eft newe – here he stant that seide it

Edify it anew (here he stands that said it)

46 And yit maken it as muche in alle manere poyntes

And yet make it as much · in all manner of points,

47 Bothe as long and as large a lofte and by grounde.”

Both as long and as large by height and by length.”

48 “Crucifige! “quod a cachepol, “ I warante hym a wicche!”

“Crucifige,” quoth a catchpole, “I warrant him a witch!”

49 “Tolle, tolle!” quod another, and took of kene thornes,

“Tolle, tolle!”[103] quoth another and took of keen thorns,

50 And bigan of [gr]ene thorn a garland to make,

And began of keen thorn a garland to make,

51 And sette it sore on his heed and seide in envye,

And set it hard on his head and said in malice,

52 “A ve, rabyt” quod that ribaud – and threw reedes at hym,

“Ave, rabi!”[104] quoth that rascal and threw reeds at him[105],

53 Nailed hym with thre nailes naked on the roode,

Nailed him with three nails naked on the rood,

54 And poison on a poole thei putte up to hise lippes,

And poison[106] on a pole they put up to his lips,

55 And beden hym drynken his deeth-yvel – hise dayes were ydone

And bade him drink his death drink his days were done.

56 And [seiden], “If that thow sotil be, help now thiselve;

“And if that thou powerful be help now thyself,

57 If thow be Crist and kynges sone, com down of the roode;

If thou be Christ, and king’s son come down off the rood;

58 Thanne shul we leve that lif thee loveth and wol noght lete thee deye!”

Then shall we believe that Life thee loveth and will not let thee die!”

59 “Consummatum est,” quod Crist, and comsede for to swoune,

“Consummatum est,”[107] quoth Christ and began for to swoon

60 Pitousliche and pale as a prison that deieth;

Piteously and pale as a prisoner that dieth;

61 The lord of lif and of light tho leide hise eighen togideres.

The lord of life and of light then layed his eyes together.

62 The day for drede withdrough and derk bicam the sonne.

The day for dread withdrew and dark became the sun,

63 The wal waggede and cleef, and al the world quaved.

The veil shook and was cleft and all the world quaked.

64 Dede men for that dene come out of depe graves,

Dead men for that din came out of deep graves,

65 And tolde why that tempeste so longe tyme durede.

And told why that tempest so long time lasted.

66 “For a bitter bataille,” the dede body seide;

“For a bitter battle” the dead body said;

67 “Lif and Deeth in this derknesse, hir oon fordeoth hir oother.

“Life and Death in this darkness one undoes the other;

68 Shal no wight wite witterly who shal have the maistrie

Shall no wight know truly who shall have the mastery,

69 Er Sonday aboute sonne risyng” – and sank with that til erthe.

Ere Sunday about sun-rising” and sank with that to earth.

70 Some seide that he was Goddes sone, that so faire deyde:

Some said that he was God”s son that so fair died,

71 Vere filius Dei erat iste.

Vere filius Dei erat iste, etc.[108]

72 And some seide he was a wicche – “Good is that we assaye

And some said he was a witch “it is good that one try,

73 Wher he be deed or noght deed, doun er he be taken.”

Whether he be dead or not dead down ere he be taken.”

74 Two theves also tholed deeth that tyme

Two thieves also suffered death that time,

75 Upon a croos bisides Crist – so was the comune lawe.

Upon a cross beside Christ so was the common law.

76 A cachepol cam forth and craked bothe hir legges,

A catchpole came forth and cracked both their legs,

77 And hir armes after of either of tho theves.

And their arms after of each of those thieves.

78 Ac was no boy so boold Goddes body to touche;

But was no boy so bold God’s body to touch;

79 For he was knyght and kynges sone, Kynde foryaf that throwe

For he was knight and king’s son nature granted that time,

80 That noon harlot were so hardy to leyen hond upon hym.

That no rascal was so hardy to lay hand upon him.

81 Ac ther cam forth a knyght with a kene spere ygrounde,

But there came forth a knight with a keen spear ground,

82 Highte Longeus, as the lettre telleth, and longe hadde lore his sight.

Called Longinus,[109] as the story telleth and long had lost his sight.

83 Bifore Pilat and oother peple in the place he hoved.

Before Pilate and the other people in the place he stood;

84 Maugree his manye teeth he was maad that tyme

Spite his many teeth he was made that time

85 To [justen with Jesus, this blynde Jew Longeus].

To take the spear in his hand and joust with Jesus;

86 For alle thei were unhardy, that hoved on horse or stode,

For all they were afraid that waited on horse or stood,

87 To touchen hym or to tasten hym or taken hym doun of roode,

To touch him or to handle him or take him down off rood.

88 But this blynde bacheler, that baar hym thorugh the herte.

But this blind bachelor then struck him through the heart;

89 The blood sprong doun by the spere and unspered the knyghtes eighen.

The blood sprung down by the spear and unbarred the knight’s eyes.

90 Thanne fil the knyght upon knees and cryde Jesu mercy:

Then fell the knight upon knees and cried him mercy –

91 “Ayein my wille it was, Lord, to wownde yow so soore!”

“Against my will it was, lord to wound you so sore!”

92 He sighed and seide, “Soore it me athynketh!

He sighed and said “sore it methinketh;

93 For the dede that I have doon I do me in youre grace.

For the deed that I have done deliver me to your grace;

94 Have on me ruthe, rightful Jesu!” – and right with that he wepte.

Have on me pity, righteous Jesus!” and right with that he wept.

95 Thanne gan Feith felly the false Jewes despise –

Then began Faith fiercely the false Jews to despise,

96 Callede hem caytyves acorsed for evere:

Called them caitives accursed for ever,

97 “For this foule vileynye vengeaunce to yow falle!

“For this foul villainy vengeance to you all!

98 To do the blynde bete hym ybounde, it was a boyes counseille.

To make the blind beat him bound it was a knave’s counsel.

99 Cursede caytyves! Knyghthood was it nevere

Cursed caitiff knighthood was it never

100 To mysdo a deed body by daye or by nyghte.

To ill treat a dead body by day or by night.

101 The gree yit hath he geten, for al his grete wounde.

The prize yet hath he gained for all his great wound.

102 “For youre champion chivaler, chief knyght of yow alle,

For your champion of chivalry chief knight of you all,

103 Yilt hym recreaunt rennyng, right at Jesus wilk.

Yields him defeated in the running right to Jesus’ will.

104 For be this derknesse ydo, Deeth worth yvenquisshed;

For be this darkness done his death will be avenged,

105 And ye, lurdaynes, han ylost – for Lif shal have the maistrye.

And ye, lordlings, have lost for Life shall have the mastery.

106 And youre fraunchyse, that fre was, fallen is in thraldom,

And your franchise, that free was fallen in thraldom,

107 And ye, cherles, and youre children, cheve shulle ye nevere,

And ye, churls, and your children succeed shall ye never,

108 Ne have lordshipe in londe, ne no lond tilye,

Nor have lordship in land nor no land till,

109 But al barayne be and usurie usen,

But all barren be and usury use,

110 Which is lif that Oure Lord in alle lawes acurseth.

Which is a life that our Lord in all laws curseth.

111 Now youre goode dayes arn doon, as Daniel prophecied:

Now your good days are done as Daniel prophesied,

112 Whan Crist cam hir kyngdom the crowne sholde lese –

When Christ came, of their kingdom the crown should fall;

113 Cum veniat sanctus sanctorum cessabit unxio vestra.”

Cum veniat sanctus sanctum, cessabit unctio vestra[110]

114 What for feere of this ferly and of the false Jewes,

What with fear of this marvel and of the false Jews,

115 I drow me in that derknesse to descendit ad inferna,

I withdrew me in that darkness to descendit ad inferna.[111]

116And there I saugh soothly, secundum scripturas,

And there I saw sothly secundum scripturas,[112]

117 Out of the west coste, a wenche, as me thoughte,

Out of the west a wench, as me thought,

118 Cam walkynge in the wey; to helleward she loked.

Came walking in the way to Hell-ward she looked.

119 Mercy highte that mayde, a meke thyng with alle,

Mercy was called that maid a meek thing withal,

120 A ful benigne burde, and buxom of speche.

A full benign lady and gentle of speech.

121 Hir suster, as it semed, cam softely walkynge

Her sister, as it seemed came softly walking,

122 Evene out of the est, and westward she lokede –

Even out of the east and westward she looked.

123 A ful comely creature [and a clene], Truthe she highte;

A full comely creature Truth she was called,

124 For the vertue that hire folwede, afered was she nevere.

For the virtue that her followed afraid was she never.

125 Whan thise maydenes mette, Mercy and Truthe,

When these maidens met Mercy and Truth,

126 Either asked oother of this grete wonder –

Each asked the other of this great wonder,

127 Of the dyn and of the derknesse, and how the day rowed,

Of the din and of the darkness and how the day began to dawn,

128 And which a light and a leme lay bifore helle.

And what a light and a brightness lay before Hell.

129 “Ich have ferly of this fare, in feith,” seide Truthe,

“I wonder at these happenings in faith,” said Truth,

130 “And am wendynge to wite what this wonder meneth.”

“And am seeking to discover what this marvel meaneth.”

131 “Have no merveille”, quod Mercy, “murhte it bitokneth.

“Have no wonder,” quoth Mercy “joy it betokeneth.

132 A maiden that highte Marie, and moder withouten felyng

A maiden called Mary and mother without knowledge

133 Of any kynde creature, conceyved thorugh speche

Of any human creature conceived through speech

134 And grace of the Holy Goost; weex greet with childe;

And grace of the Holy Ghost waxed great with child;

135 Withouten wem into this world she broghte hym;

Without stain into this world she brought him;

136 And that my tale be trewe, I take God to witnesse.

And that my tale be true I take God to witness.

137 “Sith this barn was ybore ben thritti wynter passed,

Since this child was born be thirty winters passed;

138 Which deide and deeth tholed this day aboute mydday –

Who died and death suffered this day about midday.

139 And that is cause of this clips that closeth now the sonne,

And that is cause of this eclipse that closeth now the sun,

140 In menynge that man shal fro merknesse be drawe

In meaning that man shall from darkness be drawn,

141 The while this light and this leme shal Lucifer ablende.

The while this light and this brightness shall Lucifer blind.

142 For patriarkes and prophetes han preched herof often –

For patriarchs and prophets have preached hereof often,

143 That man shal man save thorugh a maydenes helpe,

That man shall man save through a maiden’s help,

144 And that was tynt thorugh tree, tree shal it wynne,

And what was lost through tree tree shall it win,

145 And that Deeth down broughte, deeth shal releve.”

And what death down brought death shall relieve.”

146 “That thow tellest; quod Truthe, “is but a tale of waltrot!

“What thou tellest,” quoth Truth “is but a tale of waltrot

147 For Adam and Eve and Abraham with othere

For Adam and Eve and Abraham with others,

148 Patriarkes and prophetes that in peyne liggen,

Patriarchs and prophets that in pain lie,

149 Leve thow nevere that yon light hem alofte brynge,

Believe thou never that yon light them aloft will bring,

150 Ne have hem out of helle – hold thi tonge, Mercy!

Nor have them out of Hell hold thy tongue, Mercy!

151 It is but trufle that thow tellest – I, Truthe, woot the sothe.

It is but a trifle that thou tellest I, Truth, know the soth.

152 For that is ones in helle, out cometh it nevere;

For that is once in Hell out cometh he never;

153 Job the prophete patriark repreveth thi sawes:

Job the prophet, patriarch reproveth thy sayings,

154 Quia in inferno nulla est redempcio.”

Quia in inferno nulla est redemptio.[113]

155 Thanne Mercy ful myldely mouthed thise wordes:

Then Mercy full mildly mouthed these words,

156 “Thorugh experience,” quod he[o], “I hope thei shul be saved.

“Through experience,” quoth she “I hope they shall be saved.

157 For venym fordooth venym – and that I preve by reson.

For venom undoes venom and that I prove by reason.

158 For of alle venymes foulest is the scorpion;

For of all venoms foulest is the scorpion,

159 May no medicyne [am]e[nd]e the place ther he styngeth,

May no medicine help the place where he stingeth,

160 Til he be deed and do therto – the yvel he destruyeth,

Till he be dead and placed thereon the evil he destroyeth,

161 The firste venymouste, thorugh vertu of hymselve.

The first venom through venom of himself.

162 So shal this deeth fordo – I dar my lif legge –

So shall this death undo I dare my life lay,

163 Al that deeth dide first thorugh the develes entisyng;

All that Death undid first through the devil’s enticing:

164 And right as thorugh [gilours] gil;e [bigiled was man],

And right as through guile man was beguiled,

165 So shal grace that al bigan make a good ende

So shall grace that began make a good sleight;

166 Ars ut artem falleret.”

Ars ut artem falleret.”[114]

167 “Now suffre we!” seide Truthe, “I se, as me thynketh,

“Now stay we,” said Truth, “I see, as methinketh,

168 Out of the nyppe of the north, noght ful fer hennes,

Out of the cold of the north not full far hence,

169 Rightwisnesse corne rennynge; reste we the while,

Righteousness come running rest we the while;

170 For he[o] woot moore than we – he[o] was er we bothe.”

For she knows more than we she was ere we both.”

171 “That is sooth,” seide Mercy, “and I se here by sowthe

“That is so,” said Mercy, “and I see here by south,

172 Where cometh Pees pleyinge, in pacience yclothed.

Where Peace cometh playing in patience clothed;

173 Love hath coveited hire longe – leve I noon oother

Love hath coveted her long believe I none other

174 But [Love] sente hire som lettre, what this light bymeneth

But he sent her some letter what this light meaneth,

175 That overhoveth helle thus; she us shal telle.”

That is over Hell thus she us shall tell.”

176 Whan Pees in pacience yclothed approched ner hem tweyne,

When Peace, in patience clothed approached near them twain,

177 Rightwisnesse hire reverenced for hir riche clothyng,

Righteousness her reverenced for her rich clothing,

178 And preide Pees to telle hire to whit place she wolde

And prayed Peace to tell her to what place she went,

179 And in hire gaye garnements whom she grete thoughte?

And in her gay garments whom greet she thought?

180 “My wil is to wende,” quod she, “and welcome hem alle

“My will is to wend,” quoth she, “I and welcome them all,

181 That many day myghte I noght se for merknesse of synne –

That many day I might not see for murkyness of sin.

182 Adam and Eve and othere mo in helle,

Adam and Eve and others more in Hell,

183 Moyses and many mo; Mercy shul [synge],

Moses and many more mercy shall have;

184 And I shal daunce therto – do thow so, suster!

And I shall dance thereto do thou so, sister!

185 For Jesus justede wel, joye bigynneth dawe:

For Jesus jousted well, joy beginneth to dawn;

186 Ah vesperum demorabitur fletus, et ad matutinum leticia.

Ad vesperum demorabitur fletus, et ad matutinum laetitia.[115]

187 “Love, that is my lemman, swiche lettres me sente

Love, that is my lover such letters me sent,

189 That Mercy, my suster, and I mankynde sholde save,

That Mercy, my sister, and I mankind should save;

190 And that God hath forgyven and graunted me, Pees, and Mercy

And that God hath forgiven and granted me, Peace, and Mercy,

191 To be mannes meynpernour for everemoore after.

To be man’s surety for evermore after.

192 Lo, here the patente!” quod Pees, “ln pace in idipsum,

Lo! here the patent!” quoth Peace, “in pace in idipsum –

193 And that this dede shal dure, dormiam et requiescam.”

And that this deed shall endure dormiam et requiescam.”[116]

194 “What, ravestow?” quod Rightwisnesse; “or thow art righty dronke!

“What, ravest thou?” quoth Righteousness, “or thou art right drunk!

195 Levestow that yond light unlouke myghte helle

I Believest thou that yonder light unlock might Hell,

196 And save mannes soule? Suster, wene it nevere!

And save man”s soul? sister, ween it never!

197 At the bigynnyng God gaf the doom hymselve –

At the beginning, God gave the judgement himself,

198 That Adam and Eve and alle that hem suwede

That Adam and Eve and all that them followed

199 Sholden deye downrighte, and dwelle in peyne after

Should die down right and dwell in pain after,

200 If that thei touchede a tree and of the fruyt eten.

If that they touched a tree and the fruit ate.

201 Adam afterward, ayeins his defence,

Adam afterwards against his warning,

202 Freet of that fruyt, and forsook, as it were,

Ate of that fruit and forsook, as it were,

203 The love of Oure Lord and his loore bothe

The love of our Lord and his lore both,

204 And folwede that the fend taughte and his felawes wille

And followed what the fiend taught and his fellow’s will,

205 Ayeins reson – I, Rightwisnesse, recorde thus with Truthe

Against reason, I, Righteousness record thus with truth,

206 That hir peyne be perpetuel and no preiere hem helpe.

That their punishment be perpetual and no prayer them help.

207 Forthi lat hem chewe as thei chosen, and chide we noght, sustres,

Therefore let them chew as they chose and chide we not, sisters,

208 For it is botelees bale, the byte that thei eten.”

For it is helpless harm the bite that they took.”

209 “And I shal preie,” quod Pees, “hir peyne moot have ende,

“And I shall prove,” quoth Peace “their pain must have an end,

210 And wo into wele mowe wenden at the laste.

And woe into well must wend at last;

211 For hadde thei wist of no wo, wele hadde thei noght knowen;

For had they wist of no woe well had they not known.

212 For no wight woot what wele is, that nevere wo suffrede,

For no wight knows what well is that never woe suffered,

213 Ne what is hoot hunger, that hadde nevere defaute.

Nor what is called hunger that had never lack.

214 If no nyght ne weere, no man, as I leve,

If no night were no man, as I believe,

215 Sholde wite witterly what day is to meene.

Would know clearly what day means;

216 Sholde nevere right riche man that lyveth in reste and ese

Would never right rich man that liveth in rest and ease

217 Wite what wo is, ne were the deeth of kynde.

Know what woe is except for natural death.

218 So God that bigan al of his goode wille

So God that began all of his good will

219 Bicam man of a mayde mankynde to save,

Became man of a maid mankind to save,

220 And suffrede to be sold, to se the sorwe of deying,

And suffered himself to be sold to see the sorrow of dying,

221 The which unknytteth alle care, and comsynge is of reste.

The which un-knitteth all care and commencing is of rest.

222 For til modicum mete with us, I may it wel avowe,

For till modicum[117] meet with us I may it well avow,

223 Woot no wight, as I wene, what is ynogh to mene.

Knows no wight, as I ween what enough means.

224 “Forthi God, of his goodnesse, the firste gome Adam,

“Therefore God of his goodness the first man Adam,

225 Sette hym in solace and in sovereyn murthe;

Set him in solace and in sovereign mirth;

226 And siththe he suffred hym synne, sorwe to feele

And then he suffered him sin sorrow to feel,

227 To wite what wele was, kyndeliche to knowe it.

To see what well was truly to know it.

228 And after, God auntrede hymself and took Adames kynde

And after, God ventured himself and took Adam”s nature,

229 To wite what he hath suffred in thre sondry places,

To know what he hath suffered in three sundry places,

230 Bothe in hevene and in erthe – and now til helle he thenketh,

Both in Heaven, and in earth and now to Hell he thinketh,

231 To wite what alle wo is, that woot of alle joye.

To know what all woe is that knew of all joy.

232 “So it shal fare by this folk: hir folie and hir synne

So it shall fare with these folk their folly and their sin,

233 Shal lere hem what langour is, and lisse withouten ende.

Shall teach them what anguish is and bliss without end.

234 Woot no wight what werre is ther that pees regneth,

Knows no wight what war is where that peace reigneth,

235 Ne what is witterly wele til”weylawey” hym teche.”

Nor what is indeed well till “well-away”him teach.”

236 Thanne was ther a wight with two brode eighen;

Then was there a wight with two broad eyes,

237 Book highte that beaupeere, a bold man of speche.

Book was called the beau-père[118]· a bold man of speech.

238 “By Goddes body!” quod this Book, “I wol bere witnesse

“By God”s body,” quoth this Book “I will bear witness,

239 That tho this barn was ybore, ther blased a sterre

That when this child was born there blazed a star,

240 That alle the wise of this world in o wit acordeden

That all the wise of this world in one thought accorded,

241 That swich a barn was ybore in Bethleem the citee

That such a child was born in Bethlehem city,

242 That mannes soule sholde save and synne destroye.

That man’s soul should save and sin destroy.

243 “And alle the elements,” quod the Book, “herof beren witnesse.

And all the elements,” quoth the Book “hereof bear witness,

244 That he was God that al wroghte the wolkne first shewed:

That he was God that all wrought the welkin first showed;

245 Tho that weren in hevene token stella comata

Those that were in heaven took stella cometa,[119]

246 And tendeden hire as a torche to reverencen his burthe;

And kindled her as a torch to reverence his birth;

247 The light folwede the Lord into the lowe erthe.

And light followed the Lord into the low earth.

248 The water witnesseth that he was God, for he wente on it;

The water witnessed that he was God for he went on it;

249 Peter the Apostel parceyved his gate,

Peter the apostle perceived his going,

250 And as he wente on the water wel hym knew, and seide,

And as he went on the water well him knew, and said,

251 “tube me venire ad te super aquas.”

Jube me venire ad te super aquas.[120]

252 And lo! how the sonne gan louke hire light in hirselve

And lo! how the sun began to lock her light in herself,

253 Whan she seigh hym suffre, that sonne and see made.

When she saw him suffer who sun and sea made!

254 The erthe for hevynesse that he wolde suffre

The earth for heaviness that he would suffer,

255 Quaked as quyk thyng and al biquasshed the roche.

Quaked as a live thing and all crushed the rock!

256 “Lo! helle myghte nat holde, but opnede tho God tholede,

Lo! Hell might not hold but opened when God suffered,

257 And leet out Symondes sones to seen hym hange on roode.

And let out Simeon’s sons to see him hang on rood.

258 And now shal Lucifer leve it, though hyrn looth thynke.

And now shall Lucifer believe it though him loth think;

259 For Gigas the geaunt with a gyn engyned

For Gigas[121] the giant with a weapon made

260 To breke and to bete adoun that ben ayeins Jesus.

To break and to beat down those that be against Jesus.

261 And I, Book, wole be brent, but Jesus rise to lyve

And I, Book, will be burnt but Jesus rise to live,

262 In alle myghtes of man, and his moder gladie,

In all the might of man and his mother gladden,

263 And conforte al his kyn and out of care brynge,

And comfort all his kin and out of care bring,

264 And al the Jewene joye unjoynen and unlouken;

And all the Jews’ joy dissolve and disjoin;

265 And but thei reverencen his roode and his resurexion,

And unless they reverence his rood and his resurrection,

266 And bileve on a newe lawe, be lost, lif and soule!”

And believe on a new law be lost life and soul.”

267 “Suffre we!” seide Truthe, “1 here and see bothe

“Abide we,” said Truth “I hear and see both,

268 A spirit speketh to helle and biddeth unspere the yates:

How a spirit speaketh to hell · and bids unbar the gates;

269 “Attolite portas.”

Attollite portas, etc.”[122]

270 A vois loude in that light to Lucifer crieth,

A voice loud in that light to Lucifer crieth,

271 “Prynees of this place, unpynneth and unlouketh!

“Princes of this place unbolt and unlock!

272 For here cometh with crowne that kyng is of glorie.”

For here cometh with crown that king is of glory.

273 Thanne sikede Sathan, and seide to helle,

Then sighed Satan and said to them all,

274 “Swich a light, ayeins oure leve, Lazar it fette;

“Such a light, against our leave Lazarus it fetched away;

275 Care and combraunce is comen to us alle!

Care and confusion is come to us all.

276 If this kyng come in, mankynde wole he fecche,

If this king come in mankind will he fetch,

277 And lede it ther Lazar is, and lightliche me bynde.

And lead it where he liketh and easily me bind.

278 Patriarkes and prophetes han parled herof longe –

Patriarchs and prophets have talked hereof long,

279 That swich a lord and a light shal lede hem alle hennes.”

That such a lord and a light should lead them all hence.”

280 “Listneth!” quod Lucifer, “for I this lord knowe;

“Listen,” quoth Lucifer “for I this lord know,

281 Bothe this lord and this light, is longe ago I knew hym.

Both this lord and this light it is long ago I knew him.

282 May no deeth this lord dere, ne no develes queyntise,

May no death him harm nor no devil’s cunning,

283 And where he wole, is his wey – ac ware hym of the perils!

And where he will, is his way but ware him of the perils,

284 If he reve me of my right, he robbeth me by maistrie;

If he reave me of my right he robbeth me by mastery.

285 For by right and by reson the renkes that ben here

For by right and by reason those people that be here

286 Body and soule beth myne, bothe goode and ille.

Body and soul be mine both good and ill.

287 For hymself seide, that sire is of hevene,

For himself said that sire is of heaven,

288 That if Adam ete the appul, alle sholde deye,

If Adam eat the apple all should die,

289 And dwelle [in deol] with us develes – this thretynge he made.

And dwell with us devils this threat he made;

290 And [sithen] he that Soothnesse is seide thise wordes,

And he that truth is said these words;

291 And I sithen iseised sevene [thousand] wynter,

And since I have been in possession seven hundred winters,

292 I leeve that lawe nyl noght lete hym the leeste.”

I believe that law will not let him in the least.”

293 “That is sooth,” seide Satan, “but I me soore drede;

“That is soth,” said Satan “but I me sore dread,

294 For thow gete hem with gile, and his gardyn breke,

For thou gained them with guile and his garden broke,

295 And in semblaunce of a serpent sete on the appultre,

And in semblance of a serpent sat on the apple-tree,

296 And eggedest hem to ete, Eve by hirselve,

And egged them on to eat Eve by herself,

297 And toldest hire a tale – of treson were the wordes;

And told her a tale of treason were the words;

298 And so thou haddest hem out and hider at the laste.

And so thou haddest them out and hither at last.

299 It is noght graithly geten, ther gile is the roote!”

It is not easily held where guile is the root.”

300 “For God wol noght be bigiled,” quod Gobelyn, “ne byjaped.

“For God will not be beguiled” quoth Goblin,”nor tricked;

301 We have no trewe title to hem, for thorugh treson were thei dampned.”

We have no true title to them for through treason were they damned.

302 “Certes, I drede me,” quod the Devel, “lest Truthe wol hem fecche.

“Certes, I dread me,” quoth the Devil “lest truth will them fetch.

303 Thise thritty wynter, as I wene, he wente aboute and preched.

This thirty winter, as I ween hath he gone and preached;

304 I have assailled hym with synne, and som tyme I asked

I have assailed him with sin and at some time asked

305 Wheither he were God or Goddes sone – he gaf me short answere;

Whether he were God or God”s son? he gave me short answer.

306 And thus hath he trolled forth thise two and thritty wynter.

And thus he walked forth this two and thirty winter,

307 And whan I seigh it was so, slepynge I wente

And when I saw it was so sleeping, I went

308 To warne Pilates wif what done man was Jesus;

To warn Pilate’s wife what sort of man was Jesus;

309 For Jewes hateden hym and han doon hym to dethe.

For Jews hated him and have done him to death.

310 I wolde have lengthed his lif – for I leved, if he deide,

I would have lengthened his life for I believed, if he died,

311 That his soule wolde suffre no synne in his sighte;

That his soul would suffer no sin in his sight.

312 For the body, while it on bones yede, aboute was evere

For the body, while it on bones went about was ever

313 To save men from synne if hemself wolde.

To save men from sin if they themselves would.

314 And now I se wher a soule cometh [silynge hiderward]

And now I see where a soul cometh hitherward sailing.

315 With glorie and with gret light – God it is, I woot wel!

With glory and with great light God it is, I know well.

316 “I rede we fle,” quod he, “faste alle hennes” –

“I advise we flee,” quoth he “fast all hence;

317 For us were bettre noght be than biden his sighte.

For us were better not be than abide his sight.

318 For thi lesynges, Lucifer, lost is al oure praye.

For thy lies, Lucifer lost is all our prey.

319 First thorugh the we fellen fro hevene so heighe;

First through thee we fell from heaven so high;

320 For we leved thi lesynges, we lopen out alle with thee;

Because we believed thy lies we leapt out all with thee,

321 And now for thi laste lesynge, ylorn we have Adam,

And now for thy last lie lost we have Adam,

322 And al oure lordshipe, I leve, a londe and a watre:

And all our lordship, I believe on land and on water;

323 Nunc Princeps huius mundi eicietur foras.”

Nunc princeps hujus mundi ejicietur foras.”[123]

324 Eft the light bad unlouke, and Lucifer answerde,

Again the light bade unlock and Lucifer answered,

325 “Quis est iste ? What lord artow?” quod Lucifer. The light soone seide,

“What lord art thou?” quoth Lucifer “quis est iste ?”[124]

326 Rex glorie,

“Rex gloriae”[125] the light soon said,

327 The lord of myght and of mayn and alle manere vertues –

“And lord of might and of main and all manner of virtues;

328 Dominus virtutum.

dominus virtutum[126];

329 Dukes of this dymme place, anoon undo thise yates,

Dukes of this dim place anon undo these gates.

330 That Crist may come in, the Kynges sone of Hevene!”

That Christ may come in the king’s son of heaven.”

331 And with that breeth helle brak, with Belialles barres –

And with that breath Hell broke and Belial’s bars,

332 For any wye or warde, wide open the yates.

Inspite of wight or ward wide open the gates.

333 Patriarkes and prophetes, populus in tenebris,

Patriarchs and prophets populus in tenebris,[127]

334 Songen Seint Johanes song, “Ecce Agnus Dei.”

Sang Saint John”s song “ecce agnus Dei.”[128]

335 Lucifer loke ne myghte, so light hym ablente.

Lucifer might not look so light him blinded;

336 And tho that Oure Lord lovede, into his light he laughte,

And those that our Lord loved into his light he took,

337 And seide to Sathan, “Lo! here my soule to amendes

And said to Satan, “lo! here my soul to amend

338 For alle synfulle soules, to save tho that ben worthi.

For all sinful souls to save those that be worthy.

339 Myne thei ben and of me – I may the bet hem cleyme.

Mine they be and of me I may the better them claim.

340 Although reson recorde, and right of myselve,

Although reason record and right of myself,

341 That if thei ete the appul, alle sholde deye,

That if they eat the apple all should die,

342 I bihighte hem noght here helle for evere.

I promised them not here Hell for ever.

343 For the dede that thei dide, thi deceite it made;

For the deed that they did thy deceit it made;

344 With gile thow hem gete, ageyn alle reson.

With guile thou them got against all reason.

345 For in my paleis, Paradis, in persone of an addre,

For in my palace, paradise in person of an adder,

346 Falsliche thow fettest there thyng that I lovede.

Falsely thou fetchest thence thing that I loved.

347 “Thus ylik a lusard with a lady visage,

Thus like a lizard with a lady’s visage,

348 Thefliche thow me robbedest; the Olde Lawe graunteth

Like a thief thou me robbest the old law granteth,

349 That gilours be bigiled – and that is good reson:

That beguilers be beguiled and that is good reason;

350 Dentem pro dente et oculum pro oculo.

Dentem pro dente, et oculum pro oculo.[129]

351 Ergo soule shal soule quyte and synne to synne wende,

Ergo, soul shall soul quit · and sin drive out sin,

352 And al that man hath mysdo, I, man, wole amende it.

And all that man hath misdone I, man, will amend.

353 Membre for membre [was amendes by the Olde Lawe],

Member for member by the old law made amends,

354 And lif for lif also – and by that lawe I clayme

And life for life also and by that law I claim it,

355 Adam and al his issue at my wille herafter.

Adam and all his issue · at my will hereafter.

356 And that deeth in hem fordide, my deeth shal releve,

And what death in them undid my death shall relieve,

357 And bothe quyke and quyte that queynt was thorugh synne;

And both quicken and purchase what was destroyed through sin;

358 And that grace gile destruye, good feith it asketh.

And that grace guile destroy good faith it asketh.

359 So leve it noght, Lucifer, ayein the lawe I fecche hem,

So believe it not, Lucifer that against the law I fetch them,

360 But by right and by reson raunsone here my liges:

But by right and by reason ransom here my lieges:

361 Non veni solvere legem set adimplere.

Non veni solvere legem, sed adimplere.[130]

362 “Thow fettest myne in my place ayeins alle reson

Thou fetchest mine from my place against all reason,

363 Falsliche and felonliche; good feith me it taughte,

Falsely and feloniously good faith me it taught,

364 To recovere hem thorugh raunsoun, and by no reson ellis,

To recover them through ransom and by no reason else,

365 So that with gile thow gete, thorugh grace it is ywonne.

So what with guile thou got through grace it is won.

366 Thow, Lucifer, in liknesse of a luther addere

Thou, Lucifer, in likeness of a wicked adder,

367 Getest bi gile tho that God lovede;

Got by guile those that God loved;

368 And I, in liknesse of a leode, that Lord am of hevene,

And I, in likeness of a man that lord am of Heaven,

369 Graciousliche thi gile have quyt – go gile ayein gile!

Graciously thy guile have requited go guile against guile!

370 And as Adam and alle thorugh a tree deyden,

And as Adam and all through a tree died,

371 Adam and alle thorugh a tree shal turne to lyve;

Adam and all through a tree shall turn again to life;

372 And gile is bigiled, and in his gile fallen:

And guile is beguiled and in his guile fallen:

373 Et cecidit in foveam quam fecit.

Et cecidit infoveam quam fecit.[131]

374 Now bigynneth thi gile ageyn thee to turne

Now beginneth thy guile against thee to turn,

375 And my grace to growe ay gretter and widder.

And my grace to grow ever greater and wider.

376 The bitternesse that thow hast browe, now brouke it thiselve;

The bitterness that thou hast brewed enjoy it thyself,

377 That art doctour of deeth, drynk that thow madest!

That art doctor of death drink what thou madest!

378 “For I that am lord of lif, love is my drynke,

“For I, that am lord of life love is my drink,

379 And for that drynke today, I deide upon erthe.

And for that drink today I died upon earth.

380 I faught so, me thursteth yet, for mannes soule sake;

I fought so, I thirst yet for man”s soul”s sake;

381 May no drynke me moiste, ne my thurst stake,

May no drink me moist nor my thirst slake,

382 Til the vendage falle in the vale of Josaphat,

Till the vintage fall in the vale of Jehoshaphat,

383 That I drynke right ripe must, resureccio mortuorum.

And I drink right ripe must resurrectio mortuorum[132],

384 And thanne shal I come as a kyng, crouned, with aungeles,

And then shall I come as a king crowned with angels,

385 And have out of helle alle mennes soules.

And have out of Hell all men’s souls.

386 “Fendes and fendekynes bifore me shul stande

“Fiends and fiendkins before me shall stand,

387 And be at my biddyng wheresoevere [be] me liketh.

And be at my bidding wheresoere me liketh.

388 Ac to be merciable to man thanne, my kynde it asketh,

And to be merciful to man then my nature asketh;

389 For we beth bretheren of blood, but noght in baptisme alle.

For we be bretheren of blood but not in baptism all.

390 Ac alle that beth myne hole bretheren, in blood and in baptisme,

But all that be my whole bretheren in blood and in baptism,

391 Shul noght be dampned to the deeth that is withouten ende:

Shall not be damned to the death that is without end;

392 Tibi soli peccavi &c.

Tibi soli peccavi, etc.[133]

393 “It is noght used on erthe to hangen a feloun

It is not the custom on earth to hang a felon

394 Ofter than ones, though he were a tretour.

More than once though he were a traitor.

395 And if the kyng of that kyngdom corne in that tyme

And if the king of that kingdom come in that time,

396 There the feloun thole sholde deeth oother juwise,

Where the felon suffer should death or otherwise,

397 Lawe wolde he yeve hym lif, and he loked on hym.

Law wills, he give him life if he looked on him.

398 And I that am kyng of kynges shal come swich a tyme

And 1, that am king of kings shall come in such a time,

399 There doom to the deeth dampneth alle wikked;

Where judgement to the death damneth all wicked;

400 And if lawe wole I loke on hem, it lith in my grace

And if law wills I look on them · it lieth in my grace,

401 Wheither thei deye or deye noght for that thei diden ille.

Whether they die or die not for what they did ill.

402 Be it any thyng abought, the boldnesse of hir synnes,

Be it anything bought the boldness of their sins,

403 I may do mercy thorugh rightwisnesse, and alle my wordes trewe.

I may do mercy through righteousness and all my words true.

404 And though Holy Writ wole that I be wroke of hem that diden ille –

And though holy writ wills that I be avenged on them that did ill,

405 Nullum malum impunitum &c –

Nullum malum impunitum, etc.[134]

406 Thei shul be clensed clerliche and [clene] wasshen of hir synnes

They shall be cleansed clearly and washed of their sins

407 In my prisone Purgatorie, til parce it hote.

In my prison Purgatory till parce is called,

408 And my mercy shal be shewed to manye of my bretheren;

And my mercy shall be showed to many of my bretheren.

409 For blood may suffre blood bothe hungry and acale,

For blood may suffer blood both hungry and a cold,

410 Ac blood may noght se blood blede, but hym rewe.”

But blood may not see blood bleed, without pity.

411 Auaivi archana verba que non iicet homini loqui.

Audivi arcana verba, quae non licet homini loqui.[135]

412 “Ac my rightwisnesse and right shal rulen al helle,

But my righteousness and right shall rule all Hell,

413 And mercy al mankynde bifore me in hevene.

And mercy all mankind before me in Heaven.

414 For I were an unkynde kyng but I my kyn helpe –

For I were an unkind king unless I my kindred helped,

415 And nameliche at swich a nede ther nedes help bihoveth:

And above all at such need when help needs must come;

416 Non intres in iudicium cum servo tuo.

Non intres in judicium cum servo tuo, Domine.[136]

417 “Thus by lawe,” quod Oure Lord, “lede I wole fro hennes

“Thus by law,” quoth our Lord “lead I will from hence

418 Tho [leodes] that I lov[e] and leved in my comynge.

Those that me loved and believed in my coming.

419 And for thi lesynge, Lucifer, that thow leighe til Eve,

And for thy lying, Lucifer that thou told to Eve,

420 Thow shalt abyen it bittre!”– and bond hym with cheynes.

Thou shalt abide it bitterly” and bound him with chains.

421 As troth and al the route hidden hem in hernes;

Ashtoreth and all the rout hid them in corners,

422 They dorste noght loke on Oure Lord, the [lothli]este of hem alle,

They dared not look on our Lord the boldest of them all,

423 But leten hym lede forth what hym liked and lete what hym liste.

But let him lead forth what he liked and allowed him what he pleased.

424 Manye hundred of aungeles harpeden and songen,

Many hundreds of angels harped and sung,

425 “Culpat caro, purgat caro, regnat Deus Dei caro.”

Culpat caro, purgat caro; regnat Deus Dei caro.[137]

426 Thanne pipede Pees of poesie a note:

Then piped Peace of poesy a note,

427 “Clarior est solito post maxima nebula phebus;

“Clarior est solito post maxima nebula Phoebus,

428 Post inimicicias clarior est et amor.

Post inimicitias clarior est et amor.[138]

429 “After sharpest shoures,” quod Pees, “moost shene is the sonne;

After sharp showers,” quoth Peace “most glorious is the sun;

430 Is no weder warmer than after watry cloudes;

Is no weather warmer than after watery clouds.

431 Ne no love levere; ne lever frendes

Nor no love dearer nor dearer friends,

432 Than after werre and wo, whan love and pees ben maistres.

Than after war and woe when Love and Peace be masters.

433 Was nevere werre in this world, ne wikkednesse so kene,

Was never war in this world nor wickedness so keen,

434 “That Love, and hym liste, to laughyng ne broughte,

That Love, if he pleased could not bring to laughter,

435 And Pees, thorugh pacience, alle perils stoppede.”

And Peace through patience all perils stopped.”

436 “Trewes!” quod Truthe; “thow tellest us sooth, by Jesus!

“Truce,” quoth Truth “thou tellest us soth, by Jesus.

437 Clippe we in covenaunt, and ech of us kisse oother.”

Clip we in covenant and each of us kiss the other!”

438 “And lete no peple,” quod Pees, “parceyve that we chidde;

“And let no people,” quoth Peace “perceive that we chid?

439 For inpossible is no thyng to Hym that is almyghty.”

For impossible is no thing to him that is almighty.”

440 “Thow seist sooth,” seide Rightwisnesse, and reverentliche hire kiste,

“Thou sayest soth,” said Righteousness and reverently her kissed,

441 Pees, and Pees h[i]re, per secula seculorum.

Peace, and Peace her per saecula saeculorum.[139]

442 Misericordia et Veritas obviaverunt sibi, justicia et Pax osculate sunt.

Misericordia et veritas obviaverunt sibi; justitia et pax osculatae sunt.[140]

443 Truthe trumpede tho and song Te Deum laudamus,

Truth trumpeted then, and sang “Te Deum laudamus”;[141]

444 And thanne lutede Love in a loud note,

And then played Love the lute in a loud note,

445 “Ecce quam bonum et quam iocundum &c.”

Ecce quam bonum et jocundum, etc.[142]

446 Til the day dawed thise damyseles carolden,

Till the day dawned these damsels danced,

447 That men rongen to the resurexion – and right with that I wakede,

That men rang in the resurrection and right with that I waked,

448 And called Kytte my wif and Calote my doghter:

And called Kit my wife and Calot my daughter –

449 “Ariseth and reverenceth Goddes resurexion,

“Arise and reverence God’s resurrection,

450 And crepeth to the cros on knees, and kisseth it for a juwel!

And creep to the cross on knees and kiss it for a jewel

451 For Goddes blik body it bar for eure body,

For God”s blessed body it bore for our saving,

452 And it afereth the fend – for swich is the myghte,

And it frighteneth the fiend for such is the might,

453 May no grisly goost glide there it shadweth!”

May no grisly ghost glide near its shadow!”

Select bibliography and websites:

Context

Brown, Peter (ed.). A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

Mincoff, Marco. A History of English Literature. Sofia: Pleiad, 1998.

Wallace, David et al. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Text

William Langland. The Book Concerning Piers Plowman. Tr. Donald and Rachel Attwater, ed.Rachel Attwater. Everyman, 1957.

http://www.ancientgroove.co.uk/books/PiersPlowman.pdf

Prologue to Piers Plowman A-Text: William Langland in Middle English http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C-jHnU5FaCc

Criticism

Alford, J. A Companion to Piers Plowman. London: University of California Press, 1988.

Hussey, S.S. (ed.) Piers Plowman. Critical Approaches. Methuen, 1969.

Simpson, J. Piers Plowman. An Introduction.  University of Exeter Press, 2007.

Geoffrey Chaucer

The General Prologue to the Canterbury Tales

Geoffrey Chaucer is generally considered the first great poet writing in English. He is also the first poet of whom we know a good deal. Born around the year 1340, most probably in London, in the household of a prosperous wine merchant, Chaucer embarked early on an illustrious career in public service. Records show that in 1357 he served as page to Elizabeth de Burgh, Countess of Ulster. In 1360 he was captured by the French during the siege of Rheims and ransomed by the king. Subsequently, he travelled on diplomatic missions to France, Genoa and Florence. About 1366 Chaucer married Philippa de Rouet, a lady-in-waiting to Edward III’s queen and sister to Katherine Swynford, who later became wife of John of Gaunt – Edward III’s third son and one of the most powerful noblemen in the kingdom. In 1374 Chaucer was appointed controller of the London customs. In 1386 he became a Member of Parliament for Kent and served as justice of the peace. In 1389 he became clerk of the king’s works supervising public construction projects. In parallel to this, Chaucer developed the unprecedented literary career for which he was remembered. His first major literary work was The Book of the Duchess, an elegy for Blanch of Lancaster, the first wife of his patron John of Gaunt. It was soon followed by The House of Fame, The Parliament of Fowls, Troilus and Criseyde and The Legend of Good Women. He also translated important works, such as Boethius’ Consolatio Philosophiae and the French Roman de la Rose. All this culminated in his most significant work The Canterbury Tales.

The Canterbury Tales is a collection of diverse tales embedded into a frame narrative which tells the story of 30 pilgrims who agreed to entertain each other on their journey to the shrine of St. Thomas Becket by telling two tales each on the way to Canterbury and two more on the way back. The work survives in some 83 manuscripts that contain different fragments of the text  – 24 tales and the General Prologue. Their popularity was also attested by the fact that they made up the first book to be printed in the English language when William Caxton set up the first printing press in Westminster in 1476. The flexible poetic style together with the resourceful use of the vernacular contributed to both the popularisation and the development of the English language as a literary medium. The generic diversity of the stories, not untypical of medieval  miscellanies, is used alongside the narrator’s perspicacious descriptions for the creation of the vigorous literary voices and the memorable characters of the pilgrims. Chaucer’s critical examination of late medieval society in the tales is counterbalanced by his compassionate proto-humanist interest in the individual and the actual state of human nature.

G.N.

Text

A Complete Translation into Modern English by Ronald L. Ecker and Eugene J. Crook is freely available at: http//english.fsu.edu/canterbury/

Here bygynneth the Book of the tales of Caunterbury

1 Whan that aprill with his shoures soote

showers; soothing

2 The droghte of march hath perced to the roote,

drought; pierced

3 And bathed every veyne in swich licour

vein; such

4 Of which vertu engendred is the flour;

flower

5 Whan zephirus eek with his sweete breeth

also

6 Inspired hath in every holt and heeth

7 Tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne

sun

8 Hath in the ram his halve cours yronne,

the Ram[143]; run

9 And smale foweles maken melodye,

birds

10 That slepen al the nyght with open ye

eyes

11 (so priketh hem nature in hir corages);

pricks them; to ramp and rage

12 Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages,

desire to go

13 And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes,

to seek out foreign strands

14 To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes;

distant shrines; known

15 And specially from every shires ende

shire’s[144]

16 Of engelond to caunterbury they wende,

went

17 The hooly blisful martir for to seke,

holy blessed martyr; seek[145]

18 That hem hath holpen whan that they were seeke.

helped them; sick

19 Bifil that in that seson on a day,

befell

20 In southwerk at the tabard as I lay

Southwark[146]; Tabard[147]

21 Redy to wenden on my pilgrymage

ready to go

22 To caunterbury with ful devout corage,

23 At nyght was come into that hostelrye

hostelry

24 Wel nyne and twenty in a compaignye,

twenty-nine

25 Of sondry folk, by aventure yfalle

sundry; gathered by chance

26 In felaweshipe, and pilgrimes were they alle,

fellowship

27 That toward caunterbury wolden ryde.

would ride

28 The chambres and the stables weren wyde,

were wide

29 And wel we weren esed atte beste.

eased at the best

30 And shortly, whan the sonne was to reste,

when the sun went to rest

31 So hadde I spoken with hem everichon

every one

32 That I was of hir felaweshipe anon,

their

33 And made forward erly for to ryse,

agreed to rise early

34 To take oure wey ther as I yow devyse.

to make our way; as I will relate

35 But nathelees, whil I have tyme and space,

nonetheless; while

36 Er that I ferther in this tale pace,

before

37 Me thynketh it acordaunt to resoun

it seems to me

38 To telle yow al the condicioun

condition

39 Of ech of hem, so as it semed me,

each of them

40 And whiche they weren, and of what degree,

who they were

41 And eek in what array that they were inne;

how they were arrayed

42 And at a knyght than wol I first bigynne.

will

The Knight’s Portrait

43 A knyght ther was, and that a worthy man,

there

44 That fro the tyme that he first bigan

from

45 To riden out, he loved chivalrie,

to ride about

46 Trouthe and honour, fredom and curteisie.

truth; courtesy

47 Ful worthy was he in his lordes werre,

lord’s war

48 And therto hadde he riden, no man ferre,

farther than any man

49 As wel in cristendom as in hethenesse,

Christendom

50 And evere honoured for his worthynesse.

51 At alisaundre he was whan it was wonne.

Alexandria[148]

52 Ful ofte tyme he hadde the bord bigonne

often he began the game

53 Aboven alle nacions in pruce;

Prussia

54 In lettow hadde he reysed and in ruce,

Latvia raided he and Russia[149]

55 No cristen man so ofte of his degree.

more often than any Christian

56 In gernade at the seege eek hadde he be

in Granada at the siege

57 Of algezir, and riden in belmarye.

of Algeciras, and in Belmarie[150]

58 At lyeys was he and at satalye,

Ayas and Satalye[151]

59 Whan they were wonne; and in the grete see

won; The Great Sea[152]

60 At many a noble armee hadde he be.

61 At mortal batailles hadde he been fiftene,

battles; fifteen

62 And foughten for oure feith at tramyssene

Tramissene[153]

63 In lystes thries, and ay slayn his foo.

lists; foe[154]

64 This ilke worthy knyght hadde been also

same

65 Somtyme with the lord of palatye

Palatye[155]

66 Agayn another hethen in turkye.

against

67 And everemoore he hadde a sovereyn prys;

sovereign prize

68 And though that he were worthy, he was wys,

wise

69 And of his port as meeke as is a mayde.

behaved as meekly

70 He nevere yet no vileynye ne sayde

villainy

71 In al his lyf unto no maner wight.

any human being

72 He was a verray, parfit gentil knyght.

verily perfect

73 But, for to tellen yow of his array,

74 His hors were goode, but he was nat gay.

horses

75 Of fustian he wered a gypon

of fustian he wore a jupon[156]

76 Al bismotered with his habergeon,

besmeared by his (rusty) habergeon[157]

77 For he was late ycome from his viage,

voyage

78 And wente for to doon his pilgrymage.

do

The Squire’s Portrait

79 With hym ther was his sone, a yong squier,

squire[158]

80 A lovyere and a lusty bacheler,

bachelor

81 With lokkes crulle as they were leyd in presse.

locks curled

82 Of twenty yeer of age he was, I gesse.

83 Of his stature he was of evene lengthe,

average

84 And wonderly delyvere, and of greet strengthe.

wondrously nimble

85 And he hadde been somtyme in chyvachie

military campaign

86 In flaundres, in artoys, and pycardie,

Flanders, Artois and Picardy[159]

87 And born hym weel, as of so litel space,

borne himself well for his age

88 In hope to stonden in his lady grace.

to win his lady’s grace

89 Embrouded was he, as it were a meede

embroidered; meadow

90 Al ful of fresshe floures, whyte and reede.

flowers white and red

91 Syngynge he was, or floytynge, al the day;

fluting

92 He was as fressh as is the month of may.

93 Short was his gowne, with sleves longe and wyde.

94 Wel koude he sitte on hors and faire ryde.

could

95 He koude songes make and wel endite,

compose

96 Juste and eek daunce, and weel purtreye and write.

joust; dance; portray (draw)

97 So hoote he lovede that by nyghtertale.

hot; by night,

98 He sleep namoore than dooth a nyghtyngale.

99 Curteis he was, lowely, and servysable,

courteous; humble; servicable

100 And carf biforn his fader at the table.

assisted his father at the table

The Yeoman’s Portrait

101 A yeman hadde he and servantz namo

yeoman;[160]no more servants

102 At that tyme, for hym liste ride so,

he chose to travel so

103 And he was clad in cote and hood of grene.

coat and hood of green

104 A sheef of pecok arwes, bright and kene,

sheaf of peacock arrows

105 Under his belt he bar ful thriftily,

bore; carefully

106 (wel koude he dresse his takel yemanly

tackle

107 His arwes drouped noght with fetheres lowe)

drooped

108 And in his hand he baar a myghty bowe.

bore; bow.

109 A not heed hadde he, with a broun visage.

cropped head; sun-tanned face

110 Of wodecraft wel koude he al the usage.

111 Upon his arm he baar a gay bracer,

bracer[161]

112 And by his syde a swerd and a bokeler,

sword and buckler

113 And on that oother syde a gay daggere

dagger

114 Harneised wel and sharp as point of spere;

harnessed

115 A cristopher on his brest of silver sheene.

St. Christopher[162]

116 An horn he bar, the bawdryk was of grene;

baldric

117 A forster was he, soothly, as I gesse.

forester

The Prioress’ Portrait

118 Ther was also a nonne, a prioresse,

nun; prioress[163]

119 That of hir smylyng was ful symple and coy;

120 Hire gretteste ooth was but by seinte loy;

oath; ‘By Saint Eloy!’[164]

121 And she was cleped madame eglentyne.

called; Eglantine[165]

122 Ful weel she soong the service dyvyne,

sang; divine

123 Entuned in hir nose ful semely,

intoning; becomingly

124 And frenssh she spak ful faire and fetisly,

French; fair and fluently

125 After the scole of stratford atte bowe,

Stratford-at-the-Bow[166]

126 For frenssh of parys was to hire unknowe.

Paris

127 At mete wel ytaught was she with alle

she had good table manners

128 She leet no morsel from hir lippes falle,

129 Ne wette hir fyngres in hir sauce depe;

deep

130 Wel koude she carie a morsel and wel kepe

keep

131 That no drope ne fille upon hire brest.

breast

132 In curteisie was set ful muchel hir lest.

much of her lust (delight)

133 Hir over-lippe wyped she so clene

upper lip

134 That in hir coppe ther was no ferthyng sene

cup; farthing (nothing)

135 Of grece, whan she dronken hadde hir draughte.

grease

136 Ful semely after hir mete she raughte.

for food she reached

137 And sikerly she was of greet desport,

certainly; great disposition

138 And ful plesaunt, and amyable of port,

behaviour

139 And peyned hire to countrefete cheere

made special effort

140 Of court, and to been estatlich of manere,

stately manners

141 And to ben holden digne of reverence.

be held worthy of reverence

142 But, for to speken of hire conscience,

her

143 She was so charitable and so pitous

piteous

144 She wolde wepe, if that she saugh a mous

weep; saw

145 Kaught in a trappe, if it were deed or bledde.

caught; dead or bled

146 Of smale houndes hadde she that she fedde

small dogs

147 With rosted flessh, or milk and wastel-breed.

white bread

148 But soore wepte she if oon of hem were deed,

sore she would weep

149 Or if men smoot it with a yerde smerte;

smote; stick

150 And al was conscience and tendre herte.

tender heart

151 Ful semyly hir wympul pynched was,

wimple

152 Hir nose tretys, hir eyen greye as glas,

fine

153 Hir mouth ful smal, and therto softe and reed;

red

154 But sikerly she hadde a fair forheed;

certainly; forehead

155 It was almoost a spanne brood, I trowe;

broad; I assure you

156 For, hardily, she was nat undergrowe.

undergrown

157 Ful fetys was hir cloke, as I was war.

neat; aware

158 Of smal coral aboute hire arm she bar

coral; wore

159 A peire of bedes, gauded al with grene,

a string of beads

160 And theron heng a brooch of gold ful sheene,

hang; shiny

161 On which ther was first write a crowned a,

a crowned “A”

162 And after amor vincit omnia.

Love conquers all things [167]

The Second Nun’s Portrait

163 Another nonne with hire hadde she,

her

The three priests

164 That was hir chapeleyne, and preestes thre.

chaplain; three priests

The Monk’s Portrait

165 A monk ther was, a fair for the maistrie,

excellent above all others

166 An outridere, that lovede venerie,

outrider; venery

167 A manly man, to been an abbot able.

168 Ful many a deyntee hors hadde he in stable,

dainty horses

169 And whan he rood, men myghte his brydel heere

rode; bridle hear

170 Gynglen in a whistlynge wynd als cleere

jingling; as clear

171 And eek as loude as dooth the chapel belle.

also

172 Ther as this lord was kepere of the celle,

keeper of the cell

173 The reule of seint maure or of seint beneit,

Saint Maur or Saint Benedict[168]

174 By cause that it was old and somdel streit

somewhat strict

175 This ilke monk leet olde thynges pace,

let

176 And heeld after the newe world the space.

leaned  towards; in their place

177 He yaf nat of that text a pulled hen,

cared not; a plucked hen

178 That seith that hunters ben nat hooly men,

said that hunters are not holy men

179 Ne that a monk, whan he is recchelees,

cloisterless

180 Is likned til a fissh that is waterlees, --

likened; out of water

181 This is to seyn, a monk out of his cloystre.

182 But thilke text heeld he nat worth an oystre;

held not worth an oyster

183 And I seyde his opinion was good.

184 What sholde he studie and make hymselven wood,

mad

185 Upon a book in cloystre alwey to poure,

to pore

186 Or swynken with his handes, and laboure,

swink

187 As austyn bit? how shal the world be served?

As Austin bids?[169]

188 Lat austyn have his swynk to hym reserved!

189 Therfore he was a prikasour aright

rider

190 Grehoundes he hadde as swift as fowel in flight;

bird

191 Of prikyng and of huntyng for the hare

riding

192 Was al his lust, for no cost wolde he spare.

for which

193 I seigh his sleves purfiled at the hond

lined

194 With grys, and that the fyneste of a lond;

grey fur

195 And, for to festne his hood under his chyn,

fasten

196 He hadde of gold ywroght a ful curious pyn;

made of gold

197 A love-knotte in the gretter ende ther was.

the larger end

198 His heed was balled, that shoon as any glas,

bald

199 And eek his face, as he hadde been enoynt.

anointed

200 He was a lord ful fat and in good poynt;

201 His eyen stepe, and rollynge in his heed,

steep

202 That stemed as a forneys of a leed;

gleamed as a furnace

203 His bootes souple, his hors in greet estaat.

supple; great estate

204 Now certeinly he was a fair prelaat;

prelate

205 He was nat pale as a forpyned goost.

poor wasted ghost

206 A fat swan loved he best of any roost.

roast

207 His palfrey was as broun as is a berye.

as brown as a berry

The Friar’s Portrait

208 A frere ther was, a wantowne and a merye,

wanton and merry

209 A lymytour, a ful solempne man.

limiter; solemn[170]

210 In alle the ordres foure is noon that kan

Four Orders; knows[171]

211 So muchel of daliaunce and fair langage.

dalliance

212 He hadde maad ful many a mariage

marriages

213 Of yonge wommen at his owene cost.

214 Unto his ordre he was a noble post.

pillar

215 Ful wel biloved and famulier was he

familiar

216 With frankeleyns over al in his contree,

217 And eek with worthy wommen of the toun;

also; town

218 For he hadde power of confessioun,

confession

219 As seyde hymself, moore than a curat,

more than a curate

220 For of his ordre he was licenciat.

licentiate[172]

221 Ful swetely herde he confessioun,

kindly

222 And plesaunt was his absolucioun

absolution

223 He was an esy man to yeve penaunce,

easy; penance

224 Ther as he wiste to have a good pitaunce.

knew; pittance

225 For unto a povre ordre for to yive

begging friar; give

226 Is signe that a man is wel yshryve;

shriven

227 For if he yaf, he dorste make avaunt,

dared to boast of this

228 He wiste that a man was repentaunt;

knew; repentant

229 For many a man so hard is of his herte,

hard of heart

230 He may nat wepe, althogh hym soore smerte.

they; although their pain may be great

231 Therfore in stede of wepynge and preyeres

instead

232 Men moote yeve silver to the povre freres.

should give

233 His typet was ay farsed ful of knyves

tippet; always full of knives

234 And pynnes, for to yeven faire wyves.

pins

235 And certeinly he hadde a murye note

merry note

236 Wel koude he synge and pleyen on a rote;

play upon the rote[173]

237 Of yeddynges he baar outrely the pris.

balladry; won the prize.

238 His nekke whit was as the flour-de-lys;

lily

239 Therto he strong was as a champioun.

Although; champion

240 He knew the tavernes wel in every toun

241 And everich hostiler and tappestere

host and barmaid

242 Bet than a lazar or a beggestere;

better than the lepers and beggars

243 For unto swich a worthy man as he

such

244 Acorded nat, as by his facultee,

245 To have with sike lazars aqueyntaunce.

sick lepers for acquaintances

246 It is nat honest, it may nat avaunce,

it is not advantageous

247 For to deelen with no swich poraille,

to deal with the poor

248 But al with riche and selleres of vitaille.

victuals

249 And over al, ther as profit sholde arise,

250 Curteis he was and lowely of servyse.

courteous; humbly of service

251 Ther nas no man nowher so vertuous.

virtuous

252 He was the beste beggere in his hous;

252.1 (and yaf a certeyne ferme for the graunt;

a district was granted to him

252.2 Noon of his bretheren cam ther in his haunt;)

dared approach it

253 For thogh a wydwe hadde noght a sho,

widow; nothing but one shoe

254 So plesaunt was his in principio,

In the beginning[174]

255 Yet wolde he have a ferthyng, er he wente.

farthing; before

256 His purchas was wel bettre than his rente.

his earnings; his income

257 And rage he koude, as it were right a whelp.

romp; whelp

258 In love-dayes ther koude he muchel help,

much

259 For ther he was nat lyk a cloysterer

not like

260 With a thredbare cope, as is a povre scoler,

threadbare cape; poor scholar

261 But he was lyk a maister or a pope.

lord

262 Of double worstede was his semycope,

double worsted[175]

263 That rounded as a belle out of the presse.

264 Somwhat he lipsed, for his wantownesse,

wantonness

265 To make his englissh sweete upon his tonge;

266 And in his harpyng, whan that he hadde songe,

was singing

267 His eyen twynkled in his heed aryght,

head

268 As doon the sterres in the frosty nyght.

as do the stars

269 This worthy lymytour was cleped huberd.

was named Hubert

The Merchant’s Portrait

270 A marchant was ther with a forked berd,

there was

271 In mottelee, and hye on horse he sat;

motley dress; high

272 Upon his heed a flaundryssh bever hat,

Flemish beaver hat

273 His bootes clasped faire and fetisly.

neat

274 His resons he spak ful solempnely,

solemnly

275 Sownynge alwey th’ encrees of his wynnyng.

emphasizing his success

276 He wolde the see were kept for any thyng

wanted

277 Bitwixe middelburgh and orewelle.

between Middleburgh and Orwell[176]

278 Wel koude he in eschaunge sheeldes selle.

money exchange; French crowns

279 This worthy man ful wel his wit bisette

used his knowledge to his advantage

280 Ther wiste no wight that he was in dette,

no one could say he was in debt,

281 So estatly was he of his governaunce

so well managed he his trade

282 With his bargaynes and with his chevyssaunce.

financial instruments

283 For sothe he was a worthy man with alle,

truly; withal

284 But, sooth to seyn, I noot how men hym calle.

know not

The Clerk’s Portrait

285 A clerk ther was of oxenford also,

scholar; Oxford

286 That unto logyk hadde longe ygo.

devoted himself

287 As leene was his hors as is a rake,

lean

288 And he nas nat right fat, I undertake,

289 But looked holwe, and therto sobrely

thin and went poorly

290 Ful thredbare was his overeste courtepy;

overcoat

291 For he hadde geten hym yet no benefice,

churchly benefice[177]

292 Ne was so worldly for to have office.

293 For hym was levere have at his beddes heed

rather have at his bed’s head

294 Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,

bound

295 Of aristotle and his philosophie,

Aristotle

296 Than robes riche, or fithele, or gay sautrie.

fiddle; psaltery

297 But al be that he was a philosophre,

philosopher

298 Yet hadde he but litel gold in cofre;

his coffer

299 But al that he myghte of his freendes hente,

borrow from his friends

300 On bookes and on lernynge he it spente,

301 And bisily gan for the soules preye

pray for the souls

302 Of hem that yaf hym wherwith to scoleye.

those who gave him wherewithal

303 Of studie took he moost cure and moost heede,

utmost care and heed

304 Noght o word spak he moore than was neede,

not one word

305 And that was seyd in forme and reverence,

306 And short and quyk and ful of hy sentence;

high style

307 Sownynge in moral vertu was his speche,

full of

308 And gladly wolde he lerne and gladly teche.

The The Man of Law’s Portrait

309 A sergeant of the lawe, war and wys,

wary and wise

310 That often hadde been at the parvys,

parvys[178]

311 Ther was also, ful riche of excellence.

he was

312 Discreet he was and of greet reverence --

313 He semed swich, his wordes weren so wise.

such

314 Justice he was ful often in assise,

assizes

315 By patente and by pleyn commissioun.

316 For his science and for his heigh renoun,

high renown

317 Of fees and robes hadde he many oon.

owned many

318 So greet a purchasour was nowher noon

nowhere known

319 Al was fee symple to hym in effect;

fee simple[179]

320 His purchasyng myghte nat been infect.

suspected

321 Nowher so bisy a man as he ther nas,

busy

322 And yet he semed bisier than he was.

seemed

323 In termes hadde he caas and doomes alle

cases and judgments could he cite

324 That from the tyme of kyng william were falle.

William I

325 Therto he koude endite, and make a thyng,

he could draft a document so well

326 Ther koude no wight pynche at his writyng;

no man could find fault in his writing

327 And every statut koude he pleyn by rote.

statute; knew he by heart

328 He rood but hoomly in a medlee cote.

rode not well; medley coat

329 Girt with a ceint of silk, with barres smale;

sash; bars

330 Of his array telle I no lenger tale.

The Franklin’s Portrait

331 A frankeleyn was in his compaignye.

franklin[180]

332 Whit was his berd as is the dayesye;

white; daisy

333 Of his complexioun he was sangwyn.

sanguine temperament

334 Wel loved he by the morwe a sop in wyn;

morning sop in wine

335 To lyven in delit was evere his wone,

aim

336 For he was epicurus owene sone,

Epicurus’ own son[181]

337 That heeld opinioun that pleyn delit

delight

338 Was verray felicitee parfit.

perfect happiness

339 An housholdere, and that a greet, was he;

great

340 Seint julian he was in his contree.

Saint Julian[182]

341 His breed, his ale, was alweys after oon;

bread; never spared

342 A bettre envyned man was nowher noon.

a man of better cellars

343 Withoute bake mete was nevere his hous

roasted meat

344 Of fissh and flessh, and that so plentevous,

plenteous

345 It snewed in his hous of mete and drynke,

snowed

346 Of alle deyntees that men koude thynke.

dainty

347 After the sondry sesons of the yeer,

sundry

348 So chaunged he his mete and his soper.

meat; supper

349 Ful many a fat partrich hadde he in muwe,

partridge; mew,

350 And many a breem and many a luce in stuwe.

bream and pike in fish-pond

351 Wo was his cook but if his sauce were

woe

352 Poynaunt and sharp, and redy al his geere.

gear

353 His table dormant in his halle alway

waiting

354 Stood redy covered al the longe day.

355 At sessiouns ther was he lord and sire;

county sessions

356 Ful ofte tyme he was knyght of the shire.

often

357 An anlaas and a gipser al of silk

knife; purse

358 Heeng at his girdel, whit as morne milk.

hung; morning

359 A shirreve hadde he been, and a contour.

sheriff; auditor

360 Was nowher swich a worthy vavasour.

vavasour

The Guildsmen’s Portrait

361 An haberdasshere and a carpenter,

haberdasher[183]

362 A webbe, a dyere, and a tapycer,

weaver, dyer, and arras-maker[184]

363 And they were clothed alle in o lyveree

similar livery

364 Of a solempne and a greet fraternitee.

solemn

365 Ful fressh and newe hir geere apiked was;

adorned

366 Hir knyves were chaped noght with bras

not cheaply coated with brass

367 But al with silver; wroght ful clene and weel

well

368 Hire girdles and hir pouches everydeel.

everything

369 Wel semed ech of hem a fair burgeys

burgess

370 To sitten in a yeldehalle on a deys.

guildhall

371 Everich, for the wisdom that he kan,

for everything he knew

372 Was shaply for to been an alderman.

he was fit for an alderman

373 For catel hadde they ynogh and rente,

chattels enough and for rent

374 And eek hir wyves wolde it wel assente;

wives; assent

375 And elles certeyn were they to blame.

376 It is ful fair to been ycleped madame,

to be called “Madam”

377 And goon to vigilies al bifore,

go to church and be seen

378 And have a mantel roialliche ybore.

of royal fashion

The Cook’s Portrait

379 A cook they hadde with hem for the nones

nonce

380 To boille the chiknes with the marybones,

chickens; marrow-bones

381 And poudre-marchant tart and galyngale.

savory spice; galingale

382 Wel koude he knowe a draughte of londoun ale.

London

383 He koude rooste, and sethe, and broille, and frye,

roast

384 Maken mortreux, and wel bake a pye.

thick soup; pie

385 But greet harm was it, as it thoughte me,

great; I thought

386 That on his shyne a mormal hadde he.

shin; deadly sore

387 For blankmanger, that made he with the beste

blancmange

The Shipman’s Portrait

388 A shipman was ther, wonynge fer by weste;

sailor; living

389 For aught I woot, he was of dertemouthe.

knew; Dartmouth

390 He rood upon a rounce, as he kouthe,

rode a hackney

391 In a gowne of faldyng to the knee.

coarse woolen cloth

392 A daggere hangynge on a laas hadde he

string

393 Aboute his nekke, under his arm adoun.

down

394 The hoote somer hadde maad his hewe al broun;

hot summer; hue

395 And certeinly he was a good felawe.

fellow

396 Ful many a draughte of wyn had he ydrawe

wine

397 Fro burdeux-ward, whil that the chapmen sleep.

Bordeaux; while the merchant slept

398 Of nyce conscience took he no keep.

good

399 If that he faught, and hadde the hyer hond,

fought; the upper hand,

400 By water he sente hem hoom to every lond.

home

401 But of his craft to rekene wel his tydes,

reckon

402 His stremes, and his daungers hym bisides,

currents; dangerous watersides

403 His herberwe, and his moone, his lodemenage,

harbours; pilotage

404 Ther nas noon swich from hulle to cartage.

none such; Hull; Carthage

405 Hardy he was and wys to undertake;

wise

406 With many a tempest hadde his berd been shake.

beard; shaken

407 He knew alle the havenes, as they were,

408 Fro gootlond to the cape of fynystere,

Gottland; Cape of Finisterre

409 And every cryke in britaigne and in spayne.

Creek; Brittany and Spain

410 His barge ycleped was the maudelayne.

christened Madeleine

The Physician’s Portrait

411 With us ther was a doctour of phisik;

medicine

412 In al this world ne was the noon hym lik,

none like him

413 To speke of phisik and of surgerye

speak

414 For he was grounded in astronomye.

knowledgeable

415 He kepte his pacient a ful greet deel

great deal

416 In houres by his magyk natureel.

magic natural

417 Wel koude he fortunen the ascendent

tell the fortune ascendant

418 Of his ymages for his pacient.

images

419 He knew the cause of everich maladye,

every

420 Were it of hoot, or coold, or moyste, or drye,

hot, cold, moist or dry[185]

421 And where they engendred, and of what humour.

422 He was a verray, parfit praktisour

veritably; practitioner

423 The cause yknowe, and of his harm the roote,

down to the deepest root

424 Anon he yaf the sike man his boote.

remedy

425 Ful redy hadde he his apothecaries

426 To sende hym drogges and his letuaries,

drugs; electuaries

427 For ech of hem made oother for to wynne --

each aided the effect of the other

428 Hir frendshipe nas nat newe to bigynne.

begin

429 Wel knew he the olde esculapius,

Esculapius

430 And deyscorides, and eek rufus,

Deiscorides; Rufus

431 Olde ypocras, haly, and galyen,

Hippocrates; Hali; Galen

432 Serapion, razis, and avycen,

Serapion, Rhazes; Avicen

433 Averrois, damascien, and constantyn,

Averrhoes, Damascene; Constantine

434 Bernard, and gatesden, and gilbertyn.

Bernard; Gatisden; Gilbert[186]

435 Of his diete mesurable was he,

diet

436 For it was of no superfluitee,

superfluity

437 But of greet norissyng and digestible.

nourishing

438 His studie was but litel on the bible.

little

439 In sangwyn and in pers he clad was al,

blue and scarlet

440 Lyned with taffata and with sendal;

lined; taffeta and sendal[187]

441 And yet he was but esy of dispence;

not easy of expense

442 He kepte that he wan in pestilence.

what he earned in times of pestilence

443 For gold in phisik is a cordial,

in nature is warm and friendly

444 Therefore he lovede gold in special.

especially much

The Wife of Bath’s Portrait

445 A good wif was ther of biside bathe,

housewife; Bath

446 But she was somdel deef, and that was scathe.

deaf in either ear.

447 Of clooth-makyng she hadde swich an haunt,

cloth; skill

448 She passed hem of ypres and of gaunt.

Ypres; Ghent[188]

449 In al the parisshe wif ne was ther noon

no other housewife

450 That to the offrynge bifore hire sholde goon;

offering[189]

451 And if ther dide, certeyn so wrooth was she,

wroth

452 That she was out of alle charitee.

charity

453 Hir coverchiefs ful fyne weren of ground;

handkerchiefs; texture

454 I dorste swere they weyeden ten pound

weighed

455 That on a sonday weren upon hir heed.

Sunday; wore; head

456 Hir hosen weren of fyn scarlet reed,

hose; red

457 Ful streite yteyd, and shoes ful moyste and newe.

tied; soft and new

458 Boold was hir face, and fair, and reed of hewe.

bold; red of hue

459 She was a worthy womman al hir lyve

life

460 Housbondes at chirche dore she hadde fyve,

husbands at the church door

461 Withouten oother compaignye in youthe, --

not counting

462 But therof nedeth nat to speke as nowthe.

need not

463 And thries hadde she been at jerusalem;

three times

464 She hadde passed many a straunge strem;

foreign streams

465 At rome she hadde been, and at boloigne,

Rome; Bologna

466 In galice at seint-jame, and at coloigne.

Spain at Santiago; Cologne[190]

467 She koude muchel of wandrynge by the weye.

learned

468 Gat-tothed was she, soothly for to seye.

gap-toothed

469 Upon an amblere esily she sat,

rode well across

470 Ywympled wel, and on hir heed an hat

wimpled

471 As brood as is a bokeler or a targe;

buckler; shield

472 A foot-mantel aboute hir hipes large,

473 And on hir feet a paire of spores sharpe.

spurs

474 In felaweshipe wel koude she laughe and carpe.

chat

475 Of remedies of love she knew per chaunce,

476 For she koude of that art the olde daunce.

knew

The Parson’s Portrait

477 A good man was ther of religioun,

religion

478 And was a povre persoun of a toun,

poor

479 But riche he was of hooly thoght and werk.

holy thought and work

480 He was also a lerned man, a clerk,

clergyman

481 That cristes gospel trewely wolde preche;

Christ’s

482 His parisshens devoutly wolde he teche.

parishioners

483 Benygne he was, and wonder diligent,

benign

484 And in adversitee ful pacient,

485 And swich he was ypreved ofte sithes.

proven; oftentimes

486 Ful looth were hym to cursen for his tithes,

loath to curse[191]

487 But rather wolde he yeven, out of doute,

give

488 Unto his povre parisshens aboute

poor parishioners

489 Of his offryng and eek of his substaunce.

part of his income, even of his property

490 He koude in litel thyng have suffisaunce.

satisfied with little

491 Wyd was his parisshe, and houses fer asonder,

wide; asunder

492 But he ne lefte nat, for reyn ne thonder,

fail; for rain or thunder

493 In siknesse nor in meschief to visite

mischief

494 The ferreste in his parisshe, muche and lite,

farthest; small and great

495 Upon his feet, and in his hand a staf.

staff

496 This noble ensample to his sheep he yaf,

example; gave

497 That first he wroghte, and afterward he taughte.

did

498 Out of the gospel he tho wordes caughte,

499 And this figure he added eek therto,

also

500 That if gold ruste, what shal iren do?

rusts; iron

501 For if a preest be foul, on whom we truste,

priest

502 No wonder is a lewed man to ruste;

layman

503 And shame it is, if a prest take keep,

misbehaves

504 A shiten shepherde and a clene sheep.

shitty

505 Wel oghte a preest ensample for to yive,

give

506 By his clennesse, how that his sheep sholde lyve.

cleanness

507 He sette nat his benefice to hyre

for hire

508 And leet his sheep encombred in the myre

encumbered in the mire

509 And ran to londoun unto seinte poules

London; Saint Paul’s

510 To seken hym a chaunterie for soules,

chantry for souls

511 Or with a bretherhed to been withholde;

brotherhood

512 But dwelte at hoom, and kepte wel his folde,

home; fold

513 So that the wolf ne made it nat myscarie;

miscarry

514 He was a shepherde and noght a mercenarie.

mercenary

515 And though he hooly were and vertuous,

holy; virtuous

516 He was to synful men nat despitous,

sinful; despiteous

517 Ne of his speche daungerous ne digne,

spiteful; haughty

518 But in his techyng discreet and benygne.

benign

519 To drawen folk to hevene by fairnesse,

Heaven; fairness

520 By good ensample, this was his bisynesse.

example; busyness.

521 But it were any persone obstinat,

obstinate

522 What so he were, of heigh or lough estat,

high or low estate

523 Hym wolde he snybben sharply for the nonys.

reproved

524 A bettre preest I trowe that nowher noon ys.

than

525 He waited after no pompe and reverence,

526 Ne maked him a spiced conscience,

special

527 But cristes loore and his apostles twelve

Christ’s lore

528 He taughte, but first he folwed it hymselve.

The Plowman’s Portrait

529 With hym ther was a plowman, was his brother,

530 That hadde ylad of dong ful many a fother;

load of dung

531 A trewe swynkere and a good was he,

true labourer

532 Lyvynge in pees and parfit charitee.

living in peace

533 God loved he best with al his hoole herte

whole heart

534 At alle tymes, thogh him gamed or smerte,

whether it pleased him or not

535 And thanne his neighebor right as hymselve.

served

536 He wolde thresshe, and therto dyke and delve,

thresh and dig

537 For cristes sake, for every povre wight,

poor soul

538 Withouten hire, if it lay in his myght.

without pay

539 His tithes payde he ful faire and wel,

tax to the Church

540 Bothe of his propre swynk and his catel.

labour; property

541 In a tabard he rood upon a mere.

sleeveless jacket

542 Ther was also a reve, and a millere,

reeve; miller

543 A somnour, and a pardoner also,

summoner

544 A maunciple, and myself -- ther were na mo.

manciple; no more

The Miller’s Portrait

545 The millere was a stout carl for the nones;

churl

546 Ful byg he was of brawn, and eek of bones.

big; also

547 That proved wel, for over al ther he cam,

548 At wrastlynge he wolde have alwey the ram.

win the ram[192]

549 He was short-sholdred, brood, a thikke knarre;

broad; muscular

550 Ther was no dore that he nolde heve of harre,

door; off the hinges

551 Or breke it at a rennyng with his heed.

break; running headlong

552 His berd as any sowe or fox was reed,

beard; sow; red

553 And therto brood, as though it were a spade.

broad

554 Upon the cop right of his nose he hade

top

555 A werte, and theron stood a toft of herys,

wart; tuft of hairs

556 Reed as the brustles of a sowes erys;

as the bristles of a sow’s ears

557 His nosethirles blake were and wyde.

very wide

558 A swerd and bokeler bar he by his syde.

sword; buckler; bore

559 His mouth as greet was as a greet forneys.

furnace

560 He was a janglere and a goliardeys,

a babbler and a jester

561 And that was moost of synne and harlotries.

sin

562 Wel koude he stelen corn and tollen thries;

thrice charge his fees

563 And yet he hadde a thombe of gold, pardee.

thumb of gold; by God

564 A whit cote and a blew hood wered he.

white coat

565 A baggepipe wel koude he blowe and sowne,

sound

566 And therwithal he broghte us out of towne.

The Manciple’s Portrait

567 A gentil maunciple was ther of a temple,

manciple[193]

568 Of which achatours myghte take exemple

purveyors

569 For to be wise in byynge of vitaille;

buying of food and drink

570 For wheither that he payde or took by taille,

on credit

571 Algate he wayted so in his achaat

always; purchases

572 That he was ay biforn and in good staat.

never before

573 Now is nat that of God a ful fair grace

574 That swich a lewed mannes wit shal pace

ordinary man; surpass

575 The wisdom of an heep of lerned men?

heap

576 Of maistres hadde he mo than thries ten,

three times ten

577 That weren of lawe expert and curious,

who

578 Of which ther were a duszeyne in that hous

dozen in that house

579 Worthy to been stywardes of rente and lond

rent and land

580 Of any lord that is in engelond,

England

581 To make hym lyve by his propre good

own

582 In honour dettelees (but if he were wood),

debtless; mad

583 Or lyve as scarsly as hym list desire;

frugally

584 And able for to helpen al a shire

helped

585 In any caas that myghte falle or happe;

case; befall

586 And yet this manciple sette hir aller cappe.

outwitted them all

The Reeve’s Portrait

587 The reve was a sclendre colerik man.

reeve[194]; slender; choleric

588 His berd was shave as ny as ever he kan;

neat

589 His heer was by his erys ful round yshorn;

sheared

590 His top was dokked lyk a preest biforn

shaven like that of a priest

591 Ful longe were his legges and ful lene,

lean

592 Ylyk a staf, ther was no calf ysene.

like a staff

593 Wel koude he kepe a gerner and a bynne;

a granary and a bin

594 Ther was noon auditour koude on him wynne.

595 Wel wiste he by the droghte and by the reyn

knew by the drought and by the rain

596 The yeldynge of his seed and of his greyn.

grain

597 His lordes sheep, his neet, his dayerye,

oxen; dairy

598 His swyn, his hors, his stoor, and his pultrye

swine; horses; stores; poultry

599 Was hoolly in this reves governynge,

wholly

600 And by his covenant yaf the rekenynge,

agreement; reckoning

601 Syn that his lord was twenty yeer of age.

years

602 Ther koude no man brynge hym in arrerage.

in debt for arrears

603 Ther nas baillif, ne hierde, nor oother hyne,

bailiff; servant

604 That he ne knew his sleighte and his covyne;

cheating

605 They were adrad of hym as of the deeth.

afraid; death

606 His wonyng was ful faire upon an heeth;

dwelling; heath

607 With grene trees yshadwed was his place.

shaded

608 He koude bettre than his lord purchace.

purchase

609 Ful riche he was astored pryvely

private interest

610 His lord wel koude he plesen subtilly,

please craftily

611 To yeve and lene hym of his owene good,

giving and lending him his own goods

612 And have a thank, and yet a cote and hood.

be thanked and earn a coat and hood

613 In youthe he hadde lerned a good myster;

trade[195]

614 He was a wel good wrighte, a carpenter.

wright

615 This reve sat upon a ful good stot,

horse

616 That was al pomely grey and highte scot.

was named Scot

617 A long surcote of pers upon he hade,

sky blue

618 And by his syde he baar a rusty blade.

bore

619 Of northfolk was this reve of which I telle,

Norfolk

620 Biside a toun men clepen baldeswelle.

called Badeswell

621 Tukked he was as is a frere aboute,

friar

622 And evere he rood the hyndreste of oure route.

hindmost

The Summoner’s Portrait

623 A somonour was ther with us in that place,

summo[196]ner

624 That hadde a fyr-reed cherubynnes face,

fiery-red; cherubic

625 For saucefleem he was, with eyen narwe.

pimpled; narrow eyes

626 As hoot he was and lecherous as a sparwe,

hot; lecherous; sparrow

627 With scalled browes blake and piled berd.

black scurfy brows; scanty beard

628 Of his visage children were aferd.

face; feared

629 Ther nas quyk-silver, lytarge, ne brymstoon,

mercury; litharge; brimstone

630 Boras, ceruce, ne oille of tartre noon;

borax; ceruse; tartar

631 Ne oynement that wolde clense and byte,

ointment; cleanse

632 That hym myghte helpen of his whelkes white,

pimples

633 Nor of the knobbes sittynge on his chekes.

knobs

634 Wel loved he garleek, oynons, and eek lekes,

garlic, onions, and also leeks

635 And for to drynken strong wyn, reed as blood;

wine; red as blood

636 Thanne wolde he speke and crie as he were wood.

mad

637 And whan that he wel dronken hadde the wyn,

drunk

638 Thanne wolde he speke no word but latyn.

Latin

639 A fewe termes hadde he, two or thre,

phrases

640 That he had lerned out of som decree --

some

641 No wonder is, he herde it al the day;

heard

642 And eek ye knowen wel how that a jay

even a jay

643 Kan clepen watte as wel as kan the pope.

Can call out “Wat”[197]

644 But whoso koude in oother thyng hym grope,

test

645 Thanne hadde he spent al his philosophie;

then

646 Ay questio quid iuris wolde he crie.

Questio quid juris[198]

647 He was a gentil harlot and a kynde;

noble rascal

648 A bettre felawe sholde men noght fynde.

fellow

649 He wolde suffre for a quart of wyn

wine

650 A good felawe to have his concubyn

concubine

651 A twelf month, and excuse hym atte fulle;

completely

652 Ful prively a fynch eek koude he pulle.

he could pluck a pigeon

653 And if he foond owher a good felawe,

fellow

654 He wolde techen him to have noon awe

teach

655 In swich caas of the ercedekenes curs,

case; archdeacon’s curse[199]

656 But if a mannes soule were in his purs;

purse

657 For in his purs he sholde ypunysshed be.

punished

658 Purs is the ercedekenes helle, seyde he.

archdeacon’s Hell

659 But wel I woot he lyed right in dede;

know

660 Of cursyng oghte ech gilty man him drede,

dread

661 For curs wol slee right as assoillyng savith,

curse would kill as absolution save

662 And also war hym of a significavit.

beware; significavit[200]

663 In daunger hadde he at his owene gise

under his own power

664 The yonge girles of the diocise,

youths of all the diocese[201]

665 And knew hir conseil, and was al hir reed.

secrets; their advisor

666 A gerland hadde he set upon his heed

head

667 As greet as it were for an ale-stake.

alehouse sign

668 A bokeleer hadde he maad hym of a cake.

buckler; made himself

The Pardoner’s Portrait

669 With hym ther rood a gentil pardoner

rode a gentle pardoner[202]

670 Of rouncivale, his freend and his compeer,

Rouncival; peer

671 That streight was comen fro the court of rome.

From; Rome

672 Ful loude he soong com hider, love, to me!

sang; come hither

673 This somonour bar to hym a stif burdoun;

a stiff bass

674 Was nevere trompe of half so greet a soun.

trumpet; sound

675 This pardoner hadde heer as yelow as wex,

hair; wax

676 But smothe it heeng as dooth a strike of flex;

smooth; flax

677 By ounces henge his lokkes that he hadde,

locks

678 And therwith he his shuldres overspradde;

shoulders

679 But thynne it lay, by colpons oon and oon.

bundles

680 But hood, for jolitee, wered he noon,

wore he none

681 For it was trussed up in his walet.

tucked in his wallet

682 Hym thoughte he rood al of the newe jet;

the latest fashion

683 Dischevelee, save his cappe, he rood al bare.

disheveled; cap

684 Swiche glarynge eyen hadde he as an hare.

glaring

685 A vernycle hadde he sowed upon his cappe.

vernicle; sewed

686 His walet lay biforn hym in his lappe,

lap

687 Bretful of pardoun, comen from rome al hoot.

full of pardons; all hot

688 A voys he hadde as smal as hath a goot.

high; goat

689 No berd hadde he, ne nevere sholde have;

beard

690 As smothe it was as it were late shave.

his face

691 I trowe he were a geldyng or a mare.

gelding or a mare[203]

692 But of his craft, fro berwyk into ware,

from Berwick to Ware

693 Ne was ther swich another pardoner

such

694 For in his male he hadde a pilwe-beer,

bag; pillow case

695 Which that he seyde was oure lady veyl

our Lady’s veil

696 He seyde he hadde a gobet of the seyl

piece; sail

697 That seint peter hadde, whan that he wente

St. Peter

698 Upon the see, til jhesu crist hym hente.

Jesus Christ; held him up

699 He hadde a croys of latoun ful of stones,

brass

700 And in a glas he hadde pigges bones.

pig’s bones

701 But with thise relikes, whan that he fond

relics

702 A povre person dwellynge upon lond,

simple parson

703 Upon a day he gat hym moore moneye

he could get more money

704 Than that the person gat in monthes tweye;

two months[204]

705 And thus, with feyned flaterye and japes,

flattery; japes

706 He made the person and the peple his apes.

people; fools

707 But trewely to tellen atte laste,

to tell truly at last

708 He was in chirche a noble ecclesiaste.

church; ecclesiast

709 Wel koude he rede a lessoun or a storie,

could

710 But alderbest he song an offertorie;

best of all; offertory

711 For wel he wiste, whan that song was songe,

knew

712 He moste preche and wel affile his tonge

preach; polish

713 To wynne silver, as he ful wel koude;

gain; full well he could

714 Therefore he song the murierly and loude.

merrily and loud

715 Now have I toold you soothly, in a clause,

truly

716 Th’ estaat, th’ array, the nombre, and eek the cause

state; also

717 Why that assembled was this compaignye

company

718 In southwerk at this gentil hostelrye

Southwark

719 That highte the tabard, faste by the belle.

called Tabard Inn; close to the Bell.

720 But now is tyme to yow for to telle

721 How that we baren us that ilke nyght,

bore

722 Whan we were in that hostelrie alyght;

alight

723 And after wol I telle of our viage

voyage

724 And al the remenaunt of oure pilgrimage.

remnant

725 But first I pray yow, of youre curteisye,

courtesy

726 That ye n’ arette it nat my vileynye,

ascribe; vulgarity

727 Thogh that I pleynly speke in this mateere,

plainly; matter

728 To telle yow hir wordes and hir cheere,

their

729 Ne thogh I speke hir wordes proprely.

no doubt

730 For this ye knowen al so wel as I,

you know

731 Whoso shal telle a tale after a man,

whoever

732 He moot reherce as ny as evere he kan

must repeat; nearly

733 Everich a word, if it be in his charge,

every; remembers

734 Al speke he never so rudeliche and large,

so rude

735 Or ellis he moot telle his tale untrewe,

else; untrue

736 Or feyne thyng, or fynde wordes newe.

feign

737 He may nat spare, althogh he were his brother;

it were

738 He moot as wel seye o word as another.

one

739 Crist spak hymself ful brode in hooly writ,

broadly; writ

740 And wel ye woot no vileynye is it.

know; villainy

741 Eek plato seith, whoso that kan hym rede,

Plato; can read

742 The wordes moote be cosyn to the dede.

cousin[205]

743 Also I prey yow to foryeve it me,

forgive

744 Al have I nat set folk in hir degree

their

745 Heere in this tale, as that they sholde stonde.

here; stand

746 My wit is short, ye may wel understonde.

understand

747 Greet chiere made oure hoost us everichon,

cheer; every one

748 And to the soper sette he us anon.

supper; set

749 He served us with vitaille at the beste;

victuals

750 Strong was the wyn, and wel to drynke us leste.

wine; pleased

751 A semely man oure hooste was withalle

seemly; withal

752 For to han been a marchal in an halle.

have been

753 A large man he was with eyen stepe --

bulging eyes

754 A fairer burgeys is ther noon in chepe --

burgess; Cheapside[206]

755 Boold of his speche, and wys, and wel ytaught,

bold; wise

756 And of manhod hym lakkede right naught.

lacking naught

757 Eek therto he was right a myrie man,

merry

758 And after soper pleyen he bigan,

began

759 And spak of myrthe amonges othere thynges,

mirth

760 Whan that we hadde maad oure rekenynges,

paid our bills

761 And seyde thus now, lordynges, trewely,

truly

762 Ye been to me right welcome, hertely;

heartily

763 For by my trouthe, if that I shal nat lye,

by my truth; no lie

764 I saugh nat this yeer so myrie a compaignye

year; merry

765 Atones in this herberwe as is now.

at once; inn

766 Fayn wolde I doon yow myrthe, wiste I how.

make you happy; if I knew how

767 And of a myrthe I am right now bythoght,

game; thought

768 To doon yow ese, and it shal coste noght.

give you joy; nothing

769 Ye goon to caunterbury -- God yow speede,

Canterbury

770 The blisful martir quite yow youre meede!

requite your merit

771 And wel I woot, as ye goon by the weye,

know; way

772 Ye shapen yow to talen and to pleye;

tales; play

773 For trewely, confort ne myrthe is noon

there’s no mirth nor comfort

774 To ride by the weye doumb as a stoon;

dumb as a stone

775 And therfore wol I maken yow disport,

propose a sport

776 As I seyde erst, and doon yow som confort.

just said; to give you

777 And if yow liketh alle by oon assent

if you all agree

778 For to stonden at my juggement,

share my judgment

779 And for to werken as I shal yow seye,

as I tell you

780 To-morwe, whan ye riden by the weye,

on your way

781 Now, by my fader soule that is deed,

father’s soul

782 But ye be myrie, I wol yeve yow myn heed!

upon my head

783 Hoold up youre hondes, withouten moore speche.

hold up your hands

784 Oure conseil was nat longe for to seche.

seek

785 Us thoughte it was noght worth to make it wys,

to think twice

786 And graunted hym withouten moore avys,

advice

787 And bad him seye his voirdit as hym leste.

verdict

788 Lordynges, quod he, now herkneth for the beste;

listen

789 But taak it nought, I prey yow, in desdeyn.

take it not; in disdain

790 This is the poynt, to speken short and pleyn,

plain

791 That ech of yow, to shorte with oure weye,

to shorten our way

792 In this viage shal telle tales tweye

voyage; two

793 To caunterbury-ward, I mene it so,

Canterbury; mean

794 And homward he shal tellen othere two,

coming home; another two

795 Of aventures that whilom han bifalle.

adventures; befallen

796 And which of yow that bereth hym best of alle,

bears himself best of all

797 That is to seyn, that telleth in this caas

case

798 Tales of best sentence and moost solaas,

sense; the most amusement

799 Shal have a soper at oure aller cost

supper

800 Heere in this place, sittynge by this post,

here

801 Whan that we come agayn fro caunterbury.

from Canterbury

802 And for to make yow the moore mury,

merry

803 I wol myselven goodly with yow ryde,

I will myself

804 Right at myn owene cost, and be youre gyde,

be your guide

805 And whoso wole my juggement withseye

gainsay

806 Shal paye al that we spenden by the weye.

spent along the way

807 And if ye vouche sauf that it be so,

vouchsafe

808 Tel me anon, withouten wordes mo,

now; more

809 And I wol erly shape me therfore.

agree

810 This thyng was graunted, and oure othes swore

oaths

811 With ful glad herte, and preyden hym also

glad hearts; prayed him also

812 That he wolde vouche sauf for to do so,

vouchsafe

813 And that he wolde been oure governour,

814 And oure tales juge and reportour,

judge

815 And sette a soper at a certeyn pris,

supper at a certain price

816 And we wol reuled been at his devys

agree with his device

817 In heigh and lough; and thus by oon assent

one

818 We been acorded to his juggement.

accorded

819 And therupon the wyn was fet anon;

fetched

820 We dronken, and to reste wente echon,

drank; each one

821 Withouten any lenger taryynge.

tarrying

822 Amorwe, whan that day bigan to sprynge,

next morning; spring

823 Up roos oure hoost, and was oure aller cok,

rose; cock

824 And gradrede us togidre alle in a flok,

gathered; flock

825 And forth we riden a litel moore than paas

rode slowly

826 Unto the wateryng of seint thomas;

Saint Thomas’ watering[207]

827 And there oure hoost bigan his hors areste

stopped

828 And seyde, lordynges, herkneth, if yow leste.

listen

829 Ye woot youre foreward, and I it yow recorde.

agreed

830 If even-song and morwe-song accorde,

evening; morning

831 Lat se now who shal telle the firste tale.

see

832 As evere mote I drynke wyn or ale,

hope

833 Whoso be rebel to my juggement

834 Shal paye for al that by the wey is spent.

on the way

835 Now draweth cut, er that we ferrer twynne;

draw cuts

836 He which that hath the shorteste shal bigynne.

837 Sire knyght, quod he, my mayster and my lord,

said he

838 Now draweth cut, for that is myn accord.

839 Cometh neer, quod he, my lady prioresse.

near

840 And ye, sire clerk, lat be youre shamefastnesse,

bashfulness

841 Ne studieth noght; ley hond to, every man!

do not ponder more

842 Anon to drawen every wight bigan,

everyone

843 And shortly for to tellen as it was,

to cut it short

844 Were it by aventure, or sort, or cas,

by chance, rank or cause

845 The sothe is this, the cut fil to the knyght,

fell

846 Of which ful blithe and glad was every wyght,

happy

847 And telle he moste his tale, as was resoun,

reason

848 By foreward and by composicioun,

composition

849 As ye han herd; what nedeth wordes mo?

have heard

850 And whan this goode man saugh that it was so,

saw

851 As he that wys was and obedient

wise

852 To kepe his foreward by his free assent,

keep his word

853 He seyde, syn I shal bigynne the game,

since

854 What, welcome be the cut, a goddes name!

855 Now lat us ryde, and herkneth what I seye.

ride; listen

856 And with that word we ryden forth oure weye,

on our way

857 And he bigan with right a myrie cheere

merry cheer

858 His tale anon, and seyde as ye may heere.

hear

Select bibliography and websites

Context

Brewer, Derek. A New Introduction to Chaucer. Longman Medieval and Renaissance Library. London and New York. Longman, 1998.

Brown, Peter. A Companion to Chaucer. Blackwell. Oxford, 2000.

Boitani, Piero, and Jill Mann, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Chaucer. Series Cambridge Companions to Literature. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 2003.

Mincoff, Marco. A History of English Literature. Sofia: Pleiad, 1998.

Terry Jones’ TV documentary series Medieval Lives http//www.imdb.com/title/tt0398514/

Text

Excellent online text, image and audio resources can be found at

http//www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~chaucer/cantales.html

http//quod.lib.umich.edu/c/cme/index.html

http//machias.edu/faculty/necastro/chaucer/ct/ 

http//www.luminarium.org/medlit/canterbury.htm

http//www.bl.uk/treasures/caxton/homepage.html

http//www.ull.ac.uk/exhibitions/chaucer/index.php

Afterlife

A very rich study of Chaucer’s reception and literary appropriation can be found in Ellis, Steve. Chaucer An Oxford Guide. Oxford Guides. Oxford, 2005.

2012 full-scale re-enactment of The Canterbury Tales http//www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/may/04/chaucer-canterbury-tales-2012-multimedia

Terry Jones’s Chaucer and the Canterbury Tales. Documentary Film (2009) http//www.imdb.com/title/tt1795571/

BBC’s Canterbury Tales. TV Series (2003) http//www.imdb.com/title/tt0353045/

Powell and Pressburger’s A Canterbury Tale. Feature Film (1944) http//www.imdb.com/title/tt0036695/

Pasolini’s The Canterbury Tales. Feature Film (1972) http//www.imdb.com/title/tt0067647/

Helgeland’s The Knight’s Tale. Feature Film (2001) http//www.imdb.com/title/tt0183790/

Secunda Pastorum (The Second Shepherds’ Play)

Theatre first flourished in ancient Greece where traditional drama contests were held during major religious festivals, most notably the one dedicated to Dionysus. The two main genres, tragedy and comedy, were established. The best remembered dramatists of the period are: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides – for tragedy, and Aristophanes – for comedy. The plays were performed by a chorus and several actors, all men, wearing colourful, large masks. Rome continued the Greek dramatic tradition adding to Greek plots some touches of Roman culture – the plays became less religious and more entertaining, obscenity and cruelty on stage were a common sight. The best remembered Roman dramatists are: Seneca, Terence, and Plautus.

At the beginning of the medieval period the Catholic Church banned secular dramatic performances in order to curb the excesses of Roman theatre. Nevertheless, it later developed its own dramatic practices, which were used during liturgy for both a better understanding of the Christian doctrine and a greater ideological impact on the congregation. Gradually, these practices evolved into dramatisations of whole episodes from the Bible in the vernacular language and moved out of the church into the streets and squares of medieval towns. In England, these pageants were performed in cycles, covering all important religious events from Creation to the Day of Judgment, during religious festivals such as Christmas and Easter. After Pope Innocent III’s 1210 edict proscribing the clergy from performing on public stages, they were traditionally produced by the guilds, each guild choosing a particular episode of scriptural history that it considered relevant to its trade, and performed on purpose-built scaffolds or on platforms mounted on ox-drawn carriages, which could move around the town and deliver a series of performances in different places. In their own time these dramas were called “pageants” and “miracles”, while today literary scholars refer to them as “mystery plays.” The choice of this term relies mainly on the fact that it combines several relevant historical senses: a) a rite of the church impossible to explain in rational terms (mysterium); b) the service provided by the clergy (ministerium); c) the trade secrets of the guilds; d) the skilled services provided by craftsmen.

In England there are four surviving cycles of mystery plays: the York cycle – consisting of 48 pageants, the Wakefield cycle (also known as the “Towneley Plays”) – 32 pageants, the Hegge cycle (the “N-Town Plays”) – 42 pageants, and the Chester cycle – 25 pageants. Secunda Pastorum (The Second Shepherds’ Play) is part of the Wakefield cycle, surviving in a single manuscript (Huntington MS HM 1), and provides an interesting perspective on the Nativity story. It was most probably composed between 1400 and 1450 by an anonymous author, sometimes referred to as the Wakefield Master, due to his outstanding poetic skill. The pageant presents chronologically two mirroring tales: a non-B?iblical account about the theft of a sheep and its attempted concealment by the thieves, husband and wife, as their newborn baby, and the familiar Biblical story of the birth of Christ. The first story takes more space and bears undoubtedly the main dramatic focus of the play. The profusion of comic elements in this part demonstrates clearly a strong tendency to secularise and refashion liturgical drama.

G.N.

Text

Incipit Alia eorundem

Begins another of the same

[Personae:

List of characters:

Primus Pastor: Coll

PRIMUS PASTOR: Coll

Secundus Pastor: Gyb

SECUNDUS PASTOR: Gyb

Tercius Pastor: Daw

TERCIUS PASTOR: Daw

Mak

Mak

Vxor ejus: Gyll

His wife: Gyll

Angelus

Angel

Maria

Maria

Christ Child]

Christ as an infant

PRIMUS PASTOR

1 Lord, what these weders are cold!

weather

2 And I am yll happyd;

feel sick

3. I am nerehande dold,

freezed

4 So long haue I nappyd;

napped

5 My legys thay fold,

legs

6 My fyngers ar chappyd,

numb

7 It is not as I wold,

what I wished for

8 For I am al lappyd

entangled

9 In sorow.

10 In stormes and tempest,

11 Now in the eest, now in the west,

east

12 Wo is hym has neuer rest

who has never

13 Mydday nor morow!

midday

14 Bot we sely husbandys

silly husbandmen[208]

15 That walkys on the moore,

 who walk

16 In fayth we ar nerehandys

almost

17 Outt of the doore.

homeless

18 No wonder, as it standys,

matters stand

19 If we be poore,

poor

20 For the tylthe of oure landys

tilth

21 Lyys falow as the floore,

fallow; ground

22 As ye ken.

know

23 We ar so hamyd,

hampered

24 Fortaxed and ramyd,

overtaxed and rammed

25 We ar mayde handtamyd,

handtamed

26 With thyse gentlery-men.

by the gentry

27 Thus thay refe vs oure rest

deprive

28 Oure Lady theym wary!

curse

29 These men that ar lord-fest

bound to a lord

30 Thay cause the ploghe tary;

tarry

31 That, men say, is for the best -

32 We fynde it contrary.

33 Thus ar husbandys opprest,

husbandmen

34 In ponte to myscary

miscary

35 On lyfe.

in life

36 Thus hold, thay vs hunder,

under

37 Thus thay bryng vs in blonder;

trouble

38 It were greatte wonder

39 And euer shuld we thryfe.

thrive

40 For may he gett a paynt slefe

any man; painted sleeve

41 Or a broche now-on-dayes,

brooch; these days[209]

42 Wo is hym that hym grefe

grieves[210]

43 Or onys agane-says!

gainsays

44 Dar noman hym reprefe

dares; reprove

45 What mastry he mays;

 no matter

46 And yit may noman lefe

even if; believes

47 Oone word that he says -

one

48 No letter.

not in the least

49 He can make purveance

purveyance[211]

50 With boste and bragance,

boasting and bragging

51 And all is thrugh mantenance

maintenance

52 Of men that are gretter.

greater

53 Ther shall com a swane

swain

54 As prowde as a po;

peacock

55 He must borow my wane,

abode

56 My ploghe also;

plough

57 Then I am full fane

agree

58 To graunt or he go.

take it by force

59 Thus lyf we in payne

live

60 Anger, and wo,

woe

61 By nyght and day.

62 He must haue if he langyd,

wants

63 If I shuld, forgang it;

surrender it

64 I were better be hangyd

hanged

65 Then oones say hym nay.

once; no

66 It dos me good, as I walk

67 Thus by myn oone,

by myself

68 Of this warld for to talk

world

69 In maner of mone.

complaint

70 To my shepe wyll I stalk

sheep

71 And herkyn anone,

listen

72 Ther abyde on a balk

stay; ridge

73 Or sytt on a stone

sit

74 Full soyne;

soon

75 For I trowe, perdé,

I am sure; by God

76 Trew men if thay be,

true

77 We gett more compané

company

78 Or it be noyne.

before noon

SECUNDUS PASTOR

79 Bensté and Dominus,

bless me

80 What may this bemeyne?

mean

81 Why fares this warld thus?

world

82 Oft haue we not sene.

insight

83 Lord, thyse weders ar spytus

weather; spiteful

84 And the wyndys full kene.

winds; keen

85 And the frostys so hydus

frosts; hideous

86 Thay water myn eeyne,

eyes

87 No ly.

lie

88 Now in dry, now in wete,

wet

89 Now in snaw, now in slete,

snow; sleet

90 When my shone freys to my fete,

shoes; freeze; feet

91 It is not all esy.

not at all; easy

92 Bot as far as I ken

know

93 Or yit as I go,

as it goes

94 We sely wedmen

married men

95 Dre mekyll wo:

 endure much woe

96 We haue sorow then and then;

time and again

97 It fallys oft so.

happens so

98 Sely Copyle, oure hen,

silly

99 Both to and fro

100 She kakyls;

cackles

101 Bot begyn she to crok,

croak

102 To groyne or to clok,

groan; cluck

103 Wo is hym is of oure cok,

cock

104 For he is in the shakyls.

shackles

105 These men that ar wed

married

106 Haue not all thare wyll;

not at all; their will

107 When they ar full hard sted,

in a hard situation

108 Thay sygh full styll.

sigh

109 God wayte thay ar led

God only knows; treated

110 Full hard and full yll;

ill

111 In bowere nor in bed

chamber

112 Thay say noght thertyll

can’t say anything

113 This tyde.

in my time

114 My parte haue I fun,

I got my deal

115 I know my lesson:

116 Wo is hym that is bun,

woe; bound

117 For he must abyde.

abide

118 Bot now late in oure lyfys

lives

119 A meruell to me,

miracle

120 That I thynk my hart ryfys

heart breaks

121 Sich wonders to see;

such

122 What that destany dryfys

decrees

123 It shuld so be -

124 Som men wyll haue two wyfys

wives

125 And som men thre

three

126 In store;

127 Som ar wo that has any.

miserable

128 Bot so far can I:

know

129 Wo is hym that has many,

130 For he felys sore.

feels

131 Bot, yong men, of wowyng,

wooing

132 For God that you boght,

bought you[212]

133 Be well war of wedyng,

beware

134 And thynk in youre thoght,

135 “Had-I-wyst” is a thyng

“Had I known”

136 It seruys of noght.

 of no use

137 Mekyll styll mowrnyng

much quiet mourning

138 Has wedyng home broght,

139 And grefys,

grief

140 With many a sharp showre;

shower

141 For thou may cach in an owre

hour

142 That shall sow the full sowre

hurt; sore

143 As long as thou lyffys.

lives

144 For, as euer red I pystyll,

read the Epistle

145 I haue oone to my fere

one as my companion

146 As sharp as a thystyll

thistle

147 As rugh as a brere;

briar

148 She is browyd lyke a brystyll,

brows; bristle

149 With a sowre-loten chere;

sourlooking; cheer

150 Had she oones wett hyr whystyll,

once she wets her whistle

151 She couth syng full clere

can sing clearly

152 Hyr Paternoster.

her

153 She is as greatt as a whall,

great; whale

154 She has a galon of gall;

gallon

155 By hym that dyed for vs all,

him who died for us all[213]

156 I wald I had ryn to I had lost hir!

I wish I could run away

PRIMUS PASTOR

157 God looke ouer the raw,

company

158 Full defly ye stand!

deafly

SECUNDUS PASTOR

159 Yee, the dewill in thi maw,

devil’s in your belly

160 So tariand!

so late

161 Sagh thou awre of Daw?

saw you Daw anywhere

PRIMUS PASTOR

162 Yee, on a ley-land

pasture-land

163 Hard I hym blaw.

blow (his horn)

164 He commys here at hand,

he comes

165 Not far.

166 Stand styll.

SECUNDUS PASTOR

167 Qwhy?

why

PRIMUS PASTOR

168 For he commys, hope I.

comes

SECUNDUS PASTOR

169 He wyll make vs both a ly

tell us a lie

170 Bot if we be war.

but we will be prepared

TERCIUS PASTOR

171 Crystys crosse me spede,

Christ’s Cross help me

172 And Sant Nycholas!

Saint Nicholas

173 Therof had I nede;

need

174 It is wars then it was.

worse

175 Whoso couthe take hede

could; heed

176 And lett the warld pas,

of how this world passes

177 It is euer in drede

ever in dread

178 And brekyll as glas,

and brittle as glass

179 And slythys.

slides away

180 This warld fowre neuer so,

fared

181 With meruels mo and mo:

marvels; more and more

182 Now in weyll, now in wo,

joy; woe

183 And all thyng wrythys.

change

184 Was neuer syn Noe floode

since Noah’s flood

185 Sich floodys seyn,

no one saw such a downpour

186 Wyndys and ranys so rude,

wind and rain so rough

187 And stormes so keyn

storms so keen

188 Som stamerd, som stod

some stammered; stood

189 In dowte, as I weyn.

in doubt; I suppose

190 Now God turne all to good!

191 I say as I mene,

mean

192 For ponder:

193 These floodys so thay drowne,

drown

194 Both in feyldys and in towne,

fields

195 And berys all downe;

bury

196 And that is a wonder.

miracle

197 We that walk on the nyghtys,

night

198 Oure catell to kepe,

cattle

199 We se sodan syghtys

see unexpected sights

200 When othere men slepe.

sleep

201 Yit me thynk my hart lyghtys;

cheers up

202 I se shrewys pepe.

rascals peeping

203 Ye ar two all-wyghtys -

uncanny creatures

204 I wyll gyf my shepe

205 A turne.

206 Bot full yll haue I ment,

wicked

207 As I walk on this bent;

field

208 I may lyghtly repent,

do easy penance

209 My toes if I spurne.

210 A, syr, God you saue,

God save you

211 And master myne!

212 A drynk fayn wold I haue,

drink; fain

213 And somwhat to dyne.

dine

PRIMUS PASTOR

214 Crystys curs, my knaue

Christ’s curse; knave

215 Thou art a ledyr hyne!

lazy servant

SECUNDUS PASTOR

216 What, the boy lyst raue!

stop raving

217 Abyde vnto syne;

wait until

218 We haue mayde it,

we are done

219 Yll thryft on thy pate!

bad luck; head

220 Though the shrew cam late,

rascal; came

221 Yit is he in state

he is ready

222 To dyne - if he had it.

TERCIUS PASTOR

223 Sich seruandys as I,

servants

224 That swettys and swynkys,

sweat and toil

225 Etys oure brede full dry,

eat our bread entirely dry

226 And that me forthynkys.

bothers

227 We ar oft weytt and wery

wet and weary

228 When master-men wynkys,

sleep

229 Yit commys full lately

but there is great delay

230 Both dyners and drynkys;

in our diners and drinks

231 Bot nately

but to some purpose

232 Both oure dame and oure syre,

our lady and our sir

233 When we haue ryn in the myre,

they have run into difficulty

234 Thay can nyp at oure hyre,

they can reduce our hire

235 And pay vs full lately.

and pay us with a great delay

236 Bot here my trouth, master:

truth

237 For the fayr that ye make,

fare you provide

238 I shall do therafter -

accordingly

239 Wyrk as I take.

work

240 I shall do a lytyll, syr,

little

241 And emang euer lake,

avoid work

242 For yit lay my soper

run hungry

243 Neuer on my stomake

always

244 In feyldys.

the fields

245 Wherto shuld I threpe?

toil

246 With my staf can I lepe;

staff; leap[214]

247 And men say “Lyght chepe

a cheap bargain

248 Letherly foryeldys.”

repays badly

PRIMUS PASTOR

249 Thou were an yll lad

bad servant

250 To ryde on wowyng

complain against

251 With a man that had

252 Bot lytyll of spendyng.

little money

SECUNDUS PASTOR

253 Peasse, boy, I bad.

silence; I pray you

254 No more ianglyng,

babbling

255 Or I shall make the full rad,

stop you

256 By the heuens kyng!

Heaven’s King

257 With thy gawdys -

complaints

258 Where ar oure shepe, boy? - we skorne.

sheep; scorn

TERCIUS PASTOR

259 Sir, this same day at morne

morning

260 I thaym left in the corne,

them

261 When thay rang lawdys.

rang lauds[215]

262 They haue pasture good,

263 Thay can not go wrong.

PRIMUS PASTOR

264 That is right. By the roode,

by the Cross

265 Thyse nyghtys ar long!

nights

266 Yit I wold, or we yode,

I wish before we went

267 Oone gaf vs a song.

someone gave us a song

SECUNDUS PASTOR

268 So I thoght as I stode,

269 To myrth vs emong.

entertain ourselves

TERCIUS PASTOR

270 I grauntt.

I agree

PRIMUS PASTOR

271 Lett me syng the tenory.

tenor part

SECUNDUS PASTOR

272 And I the tryble so hye.

treble so high

TERCIUS PASTOR

273 Then the meyne fallys to me.

middle part

274 Lett se how ye chauntt.

see; sing

Tunc intrat Mak in clamide se super togam vestitus.

Here enters Mak with a cloak over his tunic

MAK

275 Now lord, for thy naymes sevyn,

seven names

276 That made both moyn and starnes

moon and stars

277 Well mo then I can neuen,

more; name

278 Thi will, Lorde, of me tharnys.

your; is lacking

279 I am all vneuen;

at odds

280 That moves oft my harnes.

brains

281 Now wold God I were in heuen,

heaven

282 For the[re] wepe no barnes

no child weeps

283 So styll.

ceaselessly

PRIMUS PASTOR

284 Who is that pypys so poore?

pipes so sadly

MAK

285 Wold God ye wyst how I foore!

knew; fare

286 Lo, a man that walkys on the moore

see; walks; moor

287 And has not all his wyll.

all that he desires

SECUNDUS PASTOR

288 Mak, where has thou gone?

where have you been

289 Tell vs tythyng.

your tidings

TERCIUS PASTOR

290 Is he commen? then ylkon

everyone

291 Take hede to his thyng.

guard his things

Et accipit clamidem ab ipso.

Pulls [Mak’s] cloak off

MAK

292 What! ich be a yoman,

I am a yeoman

293 I tell you, of the kyng,

King

294 The self and the some,

self-same

295 Sond from a greatt lordyng,

sent; great lord

296 And sich.

suchlike

297 Fy on you! Goyth hence

fie; go away

298 Out of my presence!

299 I must haue reuerence.

reverence

300 Why, who be ich?

how come you know not me

PRIMUS PASTOR

301 Why make ye it so qwaynt?

behave; quaintly

302 Mak, ye do wrang.

you do wrong

SECUNDUS PASTOR

303 Bot, Mak, lyst ye saynt?

like; to play the saint

304 I trow that ye lang.

I believe that you want to

TERCIUS PASTOR

305 I trow the shrew can paynt,

rascal; feign

306 The dewyll myght hym hang!

may the devil hang him

MAK

307 Ich shall make complaynt,

308 And make you all to thwang

whipped

309 At a worde,

310 And tell euyn how ye doth.

even; you

PRIMUS PASTOR

311 Bot, Mak, is that sothe?

true

312 Now take outt that Sothren tothe,

southern accent

313 And sett in a torde!

hold your tongue

SECUNDUS PASTOR

314 Mak, the dewill in youre ee!

the devil confound you

315 A stroke wold I leyne you.

I would give you a blow

TERCIUS PASTOR

316 Mak, know ye not me?

317 By God, I couthe teyn you.

hurt

MAK

318 God looke you all thre!

may God keep you three

319 Me thoght I had sene you;

I think

320 Ye ar a fare compané.

fine company

PRIMUS PASTOR

321 Can ye now mene you?

remember

SECUNDUS PASTOR

322 Shrew, pepe!

pry about, rascal

323 Thus late as thou goys,

goes

324 What wyll men suppos?

suppose

325 And thou has an yll noys

bad reputation

326 Of stelyng of shepe.

stealing; sheep

MAK

327 And I am trew as steyll,

true as steel

328 All men waytt;

know

329 Bot a sekenes I feyll

but I feel a sickness

330 That haldys me full haytt:

fever

331 My belly farys not weyll;

fares

332 It is out of astate.

estate

TERCIUS PASTOR

333 Seldom lyys the dewyll

lies

334 Dede by the gate.

dead

MAK

335 Therfor

336 Full sore am I and yll.

ill

337 If I stande stone-styll,

stone-still

338 I ete not an nedyll

morsel

339 Thys moneth and more.

month

PRIMUS PASTOR

340 How farys thi wyff? By thi hoode,

fares; wife; your hood

341 How farys she?

MAK

342 Lyys walteryng - by the roode -

lies; by the Cross

343 By the fyere, lo!

fire

344 And a howse full of brude.

house; children

345 She drynkys well, to;

drinks; too

346 Yll spede othere good

347 That she wyll do!

348 Bot s[h]o

she

349 Etys as fast as she can,

eats

350 And ilk yere that commys to man

every year

351 She bryngys furth a lakan -

brings forth a baby

352 And, som yeres, two.

353 Bot were I now more gracyus

even if I were better off

354 And rychere be far,

richer; by far

355 I were eten outt of howse

eaten out of house

356 And of harbar.

and home

357 Yit is she a fowll dowse,

foul sweetheart

358 If ye com nar;

near

359 Ther is none that trowse

can imagine

360 Nor knowys a war

or knows a worse one

361 Then ken I.

362 Now wyll ye se what I profer? -

offer

363 To gyf all in my cofer

coffer[216]

364 To-morne at next to offer

as an offering

365 Hyr hed-maspenny.

for her funeral mass

SECUNDUS PASTOR

366 I wote so forwakyd

tired

367 Is none in this shyre;

shire

368 I wold slepe, if I takyd

sleep

369 Les to my hyere.

TERCIUS PASTOR

370 I am cold and nakyd,

naked

371 And wold haue a fyere.

fire

PRIMUS PASTOR

372 I am wery, forrakyd,

weary; tired

373 And run in the myre -

mire

374 Wake thou!

awake

SECUNDUS PASTOR

375 Nay, I wyll lyg downe by,

lay me down

376 For I must slepe truly.

TERCIUS PASTOR

377 As good a mans son was I

378 As any of you.

379 Bot, Mak, com heder! Betwene

come hither

380 Shall thou lyg downe.

lie

MAK

381 Then myght I lett you bedene

hinder

382 Of that ye wold rowne,

whispering

383 No drede.

dread

384 Fro my top to my too,

toe

385 Manus tuas commendo,

Manus tuas commendo,

386 Poncio Pilato;

Pontius Pilate![217]

387 Cryst-crosse me spede!

may Christ’s Cross help me

Tunc surgit, pastoribus dormientibus, et dicit:

He stands up, the shepherds sleeping, and says:

388 Now were tyme for a man

lacks; wants

389 That lakkys what he wold

stealthily

390 To stalk preuely than

sheepfold

391 Vnto a fold,

nimbly

392 And neemly to wyrk than

too

393 And be not to bold,

pay dearly

394 For he myght aby the bargan,

395 If it were told

396 At the endyng.

397 Now were tyme for to reyll;

risk

398 Bot he nedys good counsell

prudence

399 That fayn wold fare weyll,

fare well

400 And has bot lytyll spendyng.

too little money

401 Bot abowte you a serkyll

about; magic circle

402 As rownde as a moyn,

round as the moon

403 To I haue done that I wyll,

till I am done

404 Tyll that it be noyn,

till it is noon

405 That ye lyg stone-styll

lie stone-still

406 To that I haue doyne;

till I am done

407 And I shall say thertyll

for that purpose

408 Of good wordys a foyne:

 I will cast a spell

409 “On hight,

on high

410 Ouer youre heydys, my hand I lyft.

heads; lift

411 Outt go youre een! Fordo your syght!”

eyes; lose your sight

412 Bot yit I must make better shyft

better efforts

413 And it be right.

414 Lord! what thay slepe hard!

fast asleep

415 That may ye all here.

hear

416 Was I neuer a shepard,

417 Bot now wyll I lere.

learn

418 If the flok be skard,

scared

419 Yit shall I nyp nere.

grab

420 How! drawes hederward!

this way

421 Now mendys oure chere

our cheer will mend

422 From sorow

423 A fatt shepe, I dar say,

424 A good flese, dar I lay.

fleece

425 Eft-whyte when I may,

I will pay it back when I can

426 Bot this will I borow.

borrow

427 How, Gyll, art thou in?

428 Gett vs som lyght.

get us some light

UXOR

[Mak’s] wife

429 Who makys sich dyn

noise

430 This tyme of the nyght?

night

431 I am sett for to spyn;

spinning

432 I hope not I myght

I cannot

433 Ryse a penny to wyn,

earn a penny

434 I shrew them on hight!

curse them

435 So farys

fares

436 A huswyff that has bene

housewife

437 To be rasyd thus betwene.

to be interrupted in her work

438 Here may no note be sene

nothing can be done

439 For sich small charys.

chores

MAK

440 Good wyff, open the hek!

inner door

441 Seys thou not what I bryng?

sees

UXOR

442 I may thole the dray the snek.

pull the latch

443 A, com in, my swetyng!

sweetheart

MAK

444 Yee, thou thar not rek

you seem not to care

445 Of my long standyng.

about keeping me waiting

UXOR

446 By the nakyd nek

naked neck

447 Art thou lyke for to hyng!

likely; hanged

MAK

448 Do way!

stop it

449 I am worthy my mete,

food

450 For in a strate can I gett

by risking

451 More then thay that swynke and swette

toil and sweat

452 All the long day.

453 Thus it fell to my lott.

454 Gyll, I had sich grace.

UXOR

455 It were a fowll blott

bad joke

456 To be hanged for the case.

MAK

457 I haue skapyd, Ielott,

escaped; Jill

458 Oft as hard a glase.

difficult situations

UXOR

459 “Bot so long goys the pott

pot

460 To the water,” men says,

461 “At last

462 Comys it home broken.”

comes

MAK

463 Well knowe I the token,

meaning

464 Bot let it neuer be spoken,

never

465 Bot com and help fast.

466 I wold, he were flayn;

skinned

467 I lyst well ete.

desire

468 This twelmothe was I not so fayn

glad

469 Of oone shepe-mete.

meal of mutton

UXOR

470 Com thay or he be slayn,

ere

471 And here the shepe blete -

bleat

MAK

472 Then myght I be tane.

taken

473 That were a cold swette!

sweat

474 Go spar

shut

475 The gaytt-doore.

gate door

UXOR

476 Yis, Mak,

yes

477 For and thay com at thy bak -

after you

MAK

478 Then myght I by, for all the pak,

whole

479 The dewill of the war!

the devil of a bad time

UXOR

480 A good bowrde haue I spied,

trick; discovered

481 Syn thou can none:

since you know none

482 Here shall we hym hyde,

483 To thay be gone,

until

484 In my credyll. Abyde!

cradle

485 Lett me alone,

486 And I shall lyg besyde

lie

487 In chylbed, and grone.

groan

MAK

488 Thou red,

get ready

489 And, I shall say thou was lyght

gave birth

490 Of a knaue childe this nyght.

male

UXOR

491 Now well is me day bright

492 That euer was I bred!

born

493 This is a good gyse

disguise

494 And a far cast;

 cunning trick

495 Yit a woman avyse

advice

496 Helpys at the last.

497 I wote neuer who spyse;

who is looking

498 Agane go thou fast.

go back fast

MAK

499 Bot I com or thay ryse,

unless; before

500 Els blawes a cold blast!

there will be trouble

501 I wyll go slepe.

502 Yit slepys all this meneye,

the whole company

503 And I shall go stalk preuely,

stealthily

504 As it had neuer bene I

505 That caryed thare shepe.

their

PRIMUS PASTOR

506 Resurrex a mortruus!

Resurrex a mortruus?[218]

507 Haue hold my hand.

take hold of

508 Iudas carnas dominus!

Iudas carnas dominus[219]

509 I may not well stand;

510 My foytt slepys, by Iesus,

foot is asleep; Jesus

511 And I water fastand.

very hungry

512 I thoght that we layd vs

laid down

513 Full nere Yngland.

near England

SECUNDUS PASTOR

514 A ye!

515 Lord, what I haue slept weyll!

well

516 As fresh as an eyll,

eel

517 As lyght I me feyll

light; feel

518 As leyfe on a tre.

leave; tree

TERCIUS PASTOR

519 Bensté be herein!

blessing

520 So me qwakys,

tremble

521 My hart is outt of skyn,

scared

522 Whatso it makys.

523 Who makys all this dyn?

din

524 So my browes blakys,

darkens

525 To the dowore wyll I wyn.

run to the door

526 Harke, felows, wakys!

listen; wake up

527 We were fowre -

four

528 Se ye awre of Mak now?

see; anywhere

PRIMUS PASTOR

529 We were vp or thou.

before

SECUNDUS PASTOR

530 Man, I gyf god avowe,

give; a vow

531 Yit yede he nawre.

he went nowhere

TERCIUS PASTOR

532 Me thoght he was lapt

wrapped

533 In a wolfe-skyn.

wolfskin

PRIMUS PASTOR

534 So ar many hapt

covered

535 Now, namely within.

especially on the inside

TERCIUS PASTOR

536 When we had long napt,

long nap

537 Me thoght with a gyn

trick

538 A fatt shepe he trapt;

fat sheep; trapped

539 Bot he mayde no dyn.

din

SECUNDUS PASTOR

540 Be styll!

still

541 Thi dreme makys the woode;

dream; mad

542 It is bot fantom, by the roode.

only a phantom; Cross

PRIMUS PASTOR

543 Now God turne all to good,

544 If it be his wyll.

SECUNDUS PASTOR

545 Ryse, Mak, for shame!

546 Thou lygys right lang.

you lie very long

MAK

547 Now Crystys holy name

548 Be vs emang!

be among us

549 What is this? for Sant Iame,

by St. James

550 I may not well gang!

walk

551 I trow I be the same.

recover

552 A! my nek has lygen wrang

slept

553 Enoghe.

wrong

554 Mekill thank! syn yister-euen,

 much; since yesterday eve

555 Now by Sant Strevyn,

St. Stephen

556 I was flayd with a swevyn -

frightened; dream

557 My hart out of sloghe.

scared

558 I thoght Gyll began to crok

croak

559 And trauell full sad,

heavily in labour

560 Wel-ner at the fyrst cok,

close to the first cockcrow

561 Of a yong lad

young

562 For to mend oure flok.

increase; flock

563 Then be I neuer glad;

564 I haue tow on my rok

such a crowd

565 More then euer I had.

566 A, my heede!

head

567 A house full of yong tharmes,

bellies

568 The dewill knok outt thare harnes!

knock out their brains

569 Wo is hym has many barnes,

woe; children

570 And therto lytyll brede.

little bread

571 I must go home, by youre lefe,

leave

572 To Gyll, as I thoght.

573 I pray you looke my slefe,

look in my sleeve

574 That I steyll noght;

have not stolen anything

575 I am loth you to grefe,

unwilling; grieve

576 Or from you take oght.

anything

TERCIUS PASTOR

577 Go furth, yll myght thou chefe!

forth; ill

578 Now wold I we soght,

checked

579 This morne,

morning

580 That we had all oure store.

all our stock

PRIMUS PASTOR

581 Bot I will go before;

go ahead

582 Let vs mete.

meet

SECUNDUS PASTOR

583 Whore?

Where?

TERCIUS PASTOR

584 At the crokyd thorne.

crooked thorn

MAK

585 Vndo this doore!

open

[UXOR]

586 Who is here?

MAK

587 How long shall I stand?

Wait

UXOR

588 Who makys sich a bere?

noise

589 Now walk in the wenyand!

unlucky hour

MAK

590 A, Gyll, what chere?

how are you

591 It is I, Mak, youre husbande.

UXOR

592 Then may we se here

see

593 The dewill in a bande,

the devil in bonds

594 Syr Gyle!

595 Lo, he commys with a lote,

noise

596 As he were holden in the throte.

held at the throat

597  I may not syt at my note

at my work

598 A handlang while.

a little

MAK

599 Wyll ye here what fare she makys

fuss

600 To gett hir a glose?

to make herself heard

601 And dos noght bot lakys

nothing but idle away the time

602 And clowse hir toose.

scratch her toes

UXOR

603 Why, who wanders, who wakys?

wanders about; stays awake

604 Who commys, who gose?

comes; goes

605 Who brewys, who bakys?

brews; bakes

606 What makys me thus hose?

hoarse

607 And than -

608 It is rewthe to beholde -

rueful

609 Now in hote, now in colde,

hot; cold

610 Full wofull is the householde

woeful

611 That wantys a woman.

lacks

612 Bot what ende has thou mayde

613 With the hyrdys, Mak?

herds

MAK

614 The last worde that thay sayde

said

615 When I turnyd my bak,

back

616 Thay wold looke that thay hade

check

617 Thare shepe, all the pak.

sheep; pack

618 I hope thay wyll nott be well payde

pleased

619 When thay thare shepe lak,

lack

620 Perdé!

by God

621 Bot howso the gam gose,

the game goes

622 To me thay wyll suppose,

suspect me

623 And make a fowll noyse,

loathsome noise

624 And cry outt apon me.

cry on me

625 Bot thou must do as thou hyght.

promised

UXOR

626 I accorde me thertyll;

agree

627 I shall swedyll hym right

swaddle

628 In my credyll.

cradle

629 If it were a gretter slyght,

greater trick

630 Yit couthe I help tyll.

could still help

631 I wyll lyg downe stright.

lie down straightaway

632 Com hap me.

cover

MAK

633 I wyll.

UXOR

634 Behynde!

635 Com Coll and his maroo,

mates; come

636 Thay will nyp vs full naroo.

nip us hard

MAK

637 Bot I may cry out, “haroo!”,

help

638 The shepe if thay fynde.

find

UXOR

639 Harken ay when thay call;

listen always

640 Thay will com onone.

soon

641 Com and make redy all,

ready

642 And syng by thyn oone;

sing

643 Syng “lullay” thou shall,

lullaby

644 For I must grone,

groan

645 And cry outt by the wall

646 On Mary and Iohn

Mary and John,

647 For sore.

pain

648 Syng “lullay” on fast

quickly

649 When thou heris at the last,

hear them coming

650 And bot I play a fals cast

I will pretend well

651 Trust me no more.

I promise

TERCIUS PASTOR

652 A, Coll, goode morne!

good morning

653 Why slepys thou nott?

why sleeps you not 

PRIMUS PASTOR

654 Alas, that euer was I borne!

ever

655 We haue a fowll blott -

fowl blot

656 A fat wedir haue we lorne.

wether; lost

TERCIUS PASTOR

657 Mary, Godys forbott!

God forbid

SECUNDUS PASTOR

658 Who shuld do vs that skorne?

us; scorn

659 That were a fowll spott.

evil person

PRIMUS PASTOR

660 Som shrewe.

villain

661 I haue soght with my dogys

dogs

662 All Horbery shrogys,

Horbery wood[220]

663 And of fefteyn hogys

fifteen hogs

664 Fond I bot oone ewe.

only one ewe

TERCIUS PASTOR

665 Now trow me, if ye will -

trust me

666 By Sant Thomas of Kent,

Saint Thomas of Kent[221]

667 Ayther Mak or Gyll

either

668 Was at that assent.

involved

PRIMUS PASTOR

669 Peasse, man, be still!

peace

670 I sagh when he went.

saw

671 Thou sklanders hym yll;

slander; wrongly

672 Thou aght to repent

ought to

673 Goode spede.

quickly

SECUNDUS PASTOR

674 Now as euer myght I the,

thrive

675 If I shuld euyn here de,

die

676 I wold say it were he

677 That dyd that same dede.

did; deed

TERCIUS PASTOR

678 Go we theder, I rede,

there; I say

679 And ryn on oure feete;

 run; feet

680 Shall I neuer ete brede,

eat bread

681 The sothe to I wytt.

truth; know

PRIMUS PASTOR

682 Nor drynk in my heede,

head

683 With hym tyll I mete.

meet

SECUNDUS PASTOR

684 I wyll rest in no stede

nowhere

685 Tyll that I hym grete,

greet

686 My brothere.

687 Oone I will hight:

promise

688 Tyll I se hym in sight,

see

689 Shall I neuer slepe one nyght

sleep

690 Ther I do anothere.

do something

TERCIUS PASTOR

691 Will ye here how thay hak?

trill

692 Oure syre, lyst croyne.

listen how they croon

PRIMUS PASTOR

693 Hard I neuer none crak

heard; noise

694 So clere out of toyne.

out of tune

695 Call on hym.

SECUNDUS PASTOR

696 Mak,

697 Vndo youre doore soyne!

open

MAK

698 Who is that spak,

spoke

699 As it were noyne,

noon

700 On loft?

loud

701 Who is that, I say?

TERCIUS PASTOR

702 Goode felowse, were it day.

fellow

MAK

703 As far as ye may,

you

704 Good, spekys soft,

speak softly

705 Ouer a seke woman’s heede

sick

706 That is at maylleasse;

unwell

707 I had leuer be dede

I would ratherbe dead

708 Or she had any dyseasse.

than cause her discomfort

UXOR

709 Go to anothere stede!

somewhere else

710 I may not well qweasse;

breathe

711 Ich fote that ye trede

step; tread

712 Goys thorow my nese

goes through my nose

713 So hee.

loud

PRIMUS PASTOR

714 Tell vs, Mak, if ye may,

715 How fare ye, I say?

how are you

MAK

716 Bot ar ye in this towne to-day?

717 Now how fare ye?

718 Ye haue ryn in the myre

run through the mire

719 And ar weytt yit;

still wet

720 I shall make you a fyre,

fire

721 If ye will sytt.

sit down

722 A nores wold I hyre.

nurse; hire

723 Thynk ye on yit?

724 Well qwytt is my hyre -

requited; wages

725 My dreme, this is itt -

dream

726 A seson.

so soon

727 I haue barnes, if ye knew,

children

728 Well mo then enewe;

more; enough

729 Bot we must drynk as we brew,

drink

730 And that is bot reson.

reasonable

731 I wold ye dynyd or ye yode.

dine; before you go

732 Me thynk that ye swette.

sweating

SECUNDUS PASTOR

733 Nay, nawther mendys oure mode

nothing will mend our mood

734 Drynke nor mette.

neither drink nor food

MAK

735 Why, syr, alys you oght bot goode?

has something wrong happened

TERCIUS PASTOR

736 Yee, oure shepe that we gett

tend

737 Ar stollyn as thay yode;

stolen

738 Oure los is grette.

our loss is great

MAK

739 Syrs, drynkys!

drink

740 Had I bene thore,

there

741 Som shuld haue boght it full sore.

paid dearly for it

PRIMUS PASTOR

742 Mary, some men trowes that ye wore,

believe; it was you

743 And that vs forthynkys.

deceive us

SECUNDUS PASTOR

744 Mak, som men trowys

believe

745 That it shuld be ye.

it was you.

TERCIUS PASTOR

746 Ayther ye or youre spouse,

your spouse

747 So say we.

MAK

748 Now if ye haue suspowse

suspicion

749 To Gill or to me,

750 Com and rype oure howse,

rip; house

751 And then may ye se

you see

752 Who had hir.

who took it

753 If I any shepe fott,

stole a sheep

754 Ayther cow or stott -

cow or heifer

755 And Gyll, my wyfe, rose nott

never rose from her bed

756 Here syn she lade hir -

laid her down

757 As I am true and lele,

honest

758 To God here I pray

759 That this be the fyrst mele

first meal

760 That I shall ete this day.

eat today[222]

PRIMUS PASTOR

761 Mak, as haue I ceyll,

hope for bliss

762 Avyse the, I say:

I advise you

763 He lernyd tymely to steyll

learned early to steal

764 That couth not say nay.

no

UXOR

765 I swelt!

I am dying

766 Outt, thefys, fro my wonys!

thieves; from my house

767 Ye com to rob vs for the nonys.

on purpose

MAK

768 Here ye not how she gronys?

groans

769 Youre hartys shuld melt.

hearts

UXOR

770 Outt, thefys, fro my barne!

child

771 Negh hym not thor!

near him do not go

MAK

772 Wyst ye how she had farne

knew; laboured

773 Youre hartys wold be sore.

hearts

774 Ye do wrang, I you warne,

wrong; warn

775 That thus commys before

come thus

776 To a woman that has farne -

laboured

777 Bot I say no more.

but

UXOR

778 A, my medyll!

waist

779 I pray to God so mylde,

mild

780 If euer I you begyld,

beguiled

781 That I ete this chylde

eat

782 That lygys in this credyll.

lies; cradle

MAK

783 Peasse, woman, for Godys payn,

peace; God’s pain

784 And cry not so!

785 Thou spyllys thy brane

spill; brain

786 And makys me full wo.

make; woe

SECUNDUS PASTOR

787 I trow oure shepe be slayn.

slain

788 What fynde ye two?

have you found

TERCIUS PASTOR

789 All wyrk we in vayn;

work; in vain

790 As well may we go.

791 Bot hatters!

nothing

792 I can fynde no flesh,

meat

793 Hard nor nesh,

soft

794 Salt nor fresh -

795 Bot two tome platers.

empty plates

796 Whik catell bot this,

apart from this

797 Tame nor wylde,

tame or wild

798 None, as haue I blys,

as I hope for bliss

799 As lowde as he smylde.

smelled as much as him[223]

UXOR

800 No, so God me blys

801 And gyf me ioy of my chylde!

joy; child

PRIMUS PASTOR

802 We haue merkyd amys;

marked amiss

803 I hold vs begyld.

beguiled

SECUNDUS PASTOR

804 Syr, don.

absolutely

805 Syr - oure lady hym saue! -

806 Is youre chyld a knaue?

boy

MAK

Mak.

807 Any lord myght hym haue,

have him

808 This chyld, to his son.

809 When he wakyns he kyppys,

grabs

810 That ioy is to se.

joy; see

TERCIUS PASTOR

811 In good tyme to hys hyppys,

happiness

812 And in celé!

good fortune

813 Bot who was his gossyppys

god-parents

814 So sone redé?

ready

MAK

815 So fare fall thare lyppys!

may good befall them

PRIMUS PASTOR

816 Hark now, a le.

lie

MAK

817 So God thaym thank,

them

818 Parkyn, and Gybon Waller, I say,

819 And gentill Iohn Horne, in good fay -

faith

820 He made all the garray -

commotion

821 With the greatt shank.

long legs

SECUNDUS PASTOR

822 Mak, freyndys will we be,

friends

823 For we ar all oone.

all right with each other

MAK

824 We! Now I hald for me,

speak for myself

825 For mendys gett I none.

amends.

826 Fare well all thre! -

three

827 All glad were ye gone.

we would all be glad

TERCIUS PASTOR

828 Fare wordys may ther be,

fair words

829 Bot luf is ther none

love

830 This yere.

year

PRIMUS PASTOR

831 Gaf ye the chyld, any thyng?

gave

SECUNDUS PASTOR

832 I trow not oone farthyng.

one farthing[224]

TERCIUS PASTOR

833 Fast agane will I flyng;

run back

834 Abyde ye me there.

wait for me

835 Mak, take it to no grefe

take offence

836 If I com to thi barne.

your child

MAK

837 Nay, thou dos me greatt reprefe,

great dishonour

838 And fowll has thou farne.

fowl have you done

TERCIUS PASTOR

839 The child will it not grefe,

will not mind

840 That lytyll day-starne.

little morning star

841 Mak, with youre leyfe,

your leave

842 Let me gyf youre barne

give your child

843 Bot sex pence.

six-pence

MAK

844 Nay do way! He slepys.

go away; sleeps

TERCIUS PASTOR

845 Me thynk he pepys.

peeps

MAK

846 When he wakyns he wepys.

awakens; weeps

847 I pray you go hence!

go away

TERCIUS PASTOR

848 Gyf me lefe hym to kys

give me leave; to kiss him

849 And lyft vp the clowtt.

lift up the cloth

850 What the dewill is this?

devil

851  He has a long snowte!

snout

PRIMUS PASTOR

852 He is markyd amys.

deformed

853 We wate ill abowte.

wrong to pry

SECUNDUS PASTOR

854 Ill-spon weft, iwys,

ill spun woof

855 Ay commys foull owte.

always comes out badly

856 Ay, so!

857 He is lyke to oure shepe!

resembles

TERCIUS PASTOR

858 How, Gyb, may I pepe?

peep

PRIMUS PASTOR

859 I trow kynde will crepe

nature will creep

860 Where it may not go.

where it cannot go

SECUNDUS PASTOR

861 This was a qwantt gawde

cunning trick

862 And a far-cast:

crafty device

863 It was a hee frawde.

serious fraud

TERCIUS PASTOR

864 Yee, syrs, wast.

it was

865 Lett bren this bawde

burn; bawd

866 And bynd hir fast.

bind her tight

867 A! fals skawde!

a false scold

868 Hang at the last

will hang in the end

869 So shall thou.

870 Wyll ye se how thay swedyll

tied [the sheep]

871 His foure feytt in the medyll?

legs; middle

872 Sagh I neuer in a credyll

saw; cradle

873 A hornyd lad or now.

horned; before now

MAK

874 Peasse, byd I. What!

peace

875 Lett be youre fare!

stop your din

876 I am he that hym gatt,

begot him

877 And yond woman hym bare.

this woman bore him

PRIMUS PASTOR

878 What dewill shall he hatt? -

devil; named

879 Mak? Lo, God, makys ayre!

Mak’s heir

SECUNDUS PASTOR

880 Lett be all that!

stop the pretence

881 Now God gyf hym care,

give him sorrow

882 I sagh.

I saw [him]

UXOR

883 A pratty child is he

pretty

884 As syttys on a wamans kne;

sits; woman’s knee

885 A dyllydowne, perdé,

darling; by God

886 To gar a man laghe.

makes; laugh

TERCIUS PASTOR

887 I know hym by the eere-marke;

ear-mark

888 That is a good tokyn.

proof

MAK

889 I tell you, syrs, hark!

listen

890 Hys noyse was brokyn.

nose; broken

891 Sythen told me a clerk

priest

892 That he was forspokyn.

bewitched

PRIMUS PASTOR

893 This is a fals wark;

false work

894 I wold fayn be wrokyn.

avenged

895 Gett wepyn!

weapon

UXOR

896 He was takyn with an elfe,

elf

897 I saw it myself;

898 When the clok stroke twelf

struck twelve

899 Was he forshapyn.

transformed

SECUNDUS PASTOR

900 Ye two ar well feft

skilled

901 Sam in a stede.

same in one place

TERCIUS PASTOR

902 Syn thay manteyn thare theft,

maintain; their

903 Let do thaym to dede.

execute them

MAK

904 If I trespas eft,

again

905 Gyrd of my heede.

take my head

906 With you will I be left.

leave myself to you

TERCIUS PASTOR

907 Syrs, do my reede:

take my advice

908 For this trespas

trespass

909 We will nawther ban ne flyte,

neither ban nor quarrel

910 Fyght nor chyte,

fight nor chide

911 Bot haue done as tyte,

but quickly

912 And cast hym in canvas.

cast him in canvas[225]

PRIMUS PASTOR

913 Lord! what I am sore,

angry

914 In poynt for to bryst!

on point of bursting

915 In fayth, I may no more;

faith

916 Therfor wyll I ryst.

rest

SECUNDUS PASTOR

917 As a shepe of sevyn skore

sheep; seven score [pounds]

918 He weyd in my fyst.

fist

919 For to slepe aywhore

sleep; anywhere

920 Me thynk that I lyst.

I desire

TERCIUS PASTOR

921 Now, I pray you,

922 Lyg downe on this grene.

lie down; meadow

PRIMUS PASTOR

923 On these thefys yit I mene.

thieves; concerned

TERCIUS PASTOR

924 Wherto shuld ye tene?

be grieved

925 Do as I say you.

Angelus cantat “Gloria in excelsis”; postea dicat:

An angel sings “Gloria in excelsis” and then says:[226]

ANGELUS

926 Ryse, hyrd-men heynd,

gracious herdsmen

927 For now is he borne

born

928 That shall take fro the feynd

from the fiend

929 That Adam had lorne;

 lost

930 That warloo to sheynd,

warlock to defeat

931 This nyght is he borne.

night

932 God is made youre freynd

friend

933 Now at this morne,

morning

934 He behestys.

promises

935 At Bedlem go se

Bethlehem; see

936 Ther lygys that fre

lies; lord

937 In a cryb full poorely,

crib; poorly

938 Betwyx two bestys.

between; beasts

PRIMUS PASTOR

939 This was a qwant stevyn

the finest song

940 That euer yit I hard.

I ever yet heard

941 It is a meruell to neuyn,

a marvel to tell of

942 Thus to be skard.

scared

SECUNDUS PASTOR

943 Of Godys son of heuyn

God’s son of heaven

944 He spak vpward.

from above

945 All the wod on a leuyn

wood; in a bright light

946 Me thoght that he gard

I thought; he made

947 Appere.

appear

TERCIUS PASTOR

948 He spake of a barne

spoke; child

949 In Bedlem, I you warne.

Bethlehem; I tell you

PRIMUS PASTOR

950 That betokyns yond starne;

the star over there

951 Let vs seke hym there.

seek

SECUNDUS PASTOR

952 Say, what was his song?

953 Hard ye not how he crakyd it,

loudly he sang it

954 Thre brefes to a long?

three short notes to a long one

TERCIUS PASTOR

955 Yee, Mary, he hakt it:

by Mary; trilled

956 Was no crochett wrong,

not a bit

957 Nor nothyng that lakt it.

it lacked nothing

PRIMUS PASTOR

958 For to syng vs emong,

among us

959 Right as he knakt it,

fashioned

960 I can.

SECUNDUS PASTOR

961 Let se how ye croyne!

you croon

962 Can ye bark at the mone?

moon

TERCIUS PASTOR

963 Hold youre tonges! Haue done!

stop it

PRIMUS PASTOR

964 Hark after, than.

listen

SECUNDUS PASTOR

965 To Bedlem he bad

Bethlehem; bade

966 That we shuld gang;

should go

967 I am full fard

Afraid

968 That we tary to lang.

waited for too long

TERCIUS PASTOR

969 Be mery and not sad -

merry

970 Of myrth is oure sang!

joy; song

971 Euerlastyng glad

everlasting gladness

972 To mede may we fang

as a reward; earn

973 Withoutt noyse.

fuss

PRIMUS PASTOR

974 Hy we theder forthy,

hurry we thither

975 If we be wete and wery,

wet and weary

976 To that chyld and that lady!

977 We haue it not to lose.

mustn’t forget it

SECUNDUS PASTOR

978 We fynde by the prophecy -

979 Let be youre dyn! -

stop your din

980 Of Dauid and Isay

David and Isaiah

981 And mo then I myn -

more

982 Thay prophecyed by clergy -

due to their learning

983 That in a vyrgyn

virgin

984 Shuld he lyght and ly,

come down and die

985 To slokyn oure syn

slake our sin

986 And slake it,

relieve

987 Oure kynde, from wo;

our kind from woe

988 For Isay sayd so:

Isaiah

989 Ecce virgo

“Ecce virgo concipiet”[227]

990 Concipiet a chylde that is nakyd.

naked

TERCIUS PASTOR

991 Full glad may we be,

992 And abyde that day

await

993 That lufly to se,

lovely to see

994 That all myghtys may.

almighty

995 Lord, well were me

glad

996 For ones and for ay,

for once and for all

997 Myght I knele on my kne,

knees

998 Som word for to say

some

999 To that chylde.

1000 Bot the angell sayd

1001 In a cryb was he layde;

1002 He was poorly arayd,

dressed

1003 Both mener and mylde.

both poor and noble

PRIMUS PASTOR

1004 Patryarkes that has bene,

patriarchs; lived once

1005 And prophetys beforne,

prophets bygone

1006 Thay desyryd to haue sene

desired

1007 This chylde that is borne.

1008 Thay ar gone full clene;

completely

1009 That haue thay lorne.

lost this chance

1010 We shall se hym, I weyn,

see; I trust

1011 Or it be morne,

before; morning

1012 To tokyn.

token

1013 When I se hym and fele,

see and feel

1014 Then wote I full weyll

shall know; full well

1015 It is true as steyll

true as steel

1016 That prophetys haue spokyn:

spoken

1017 To so poore as we ar

are

1018 That he wold appere,

appear

1019 Fyrst fynd, and declare

1020 By his messyngere.

SECUNDUS PASTOR

1021 Go we now, let vs fare;

get going

1022 The place is vs nere.

nearby

TERCIUS PASTOR

1023 I am redy and yare;

ready and prepared

1024 Go we in fere

together

1025 To that bright.

1026 Lord, if thi wylles be -

if it be your will

1027 We ar lewde all thre -

simple

1028 Thou grauntt vs som kyns gle

joyful means

1029 To comforth thi wight.

to comfort your child

PRIMUS PASTOR

1030 Hayll, comly and clene!

hail; beautiful and clean

1031 Hayll, yong child!

1032 Hayll, maker, as I meyne,

mean

1033 Of a madyn so mylde!

maiden so gentle

1034 Thou has waryd, I weyne

cursed

1035 The warlo so wylde:

warlock so wild

1036 The fals gyler of teyn,

evil deceiver

1037 Now goys he begylde.

deceived himself

1038 Lo, he merys,

look; he cheers

1039 Lo, he laghys, my swetyng!

laughing; sweeting

1040 A wel fare metyng!

fine meeting

1041 I haue holden my hetyng;

promise

1042 Haue a bob of cherys.

cluster of cherries

SECUNDUS PASTOR

1043 Hayll, sufferan sauyoure,

sovereign saviour

1044 For thou has vs soght!

you have chosen us

1045 Hayll, frely foyde and floure,

noble child and flower

1046 That all thyng has wroght!

created all things

1047 Hayll, full of fauoure,

favour

1048 That made all of noght!

out of nothing

1049 Hayll! I kneyll and I cowre.

kneel and bow

1050 A byrd haue I broght

bird

1051 To my barne.

child

1052 Hayll, lytyll tyne mop!

tiny moppet

1053 Of oure crede thou art crop;

head of our creed

1054 I wold drynk on thy cop,

out of your cup

1055 Lytyll day-starne.

morning star

TERCIUS PASTOR

1056 Hayll, derlyng dere,

dear darling

1057 Full of Godhede!

divinity

1058 I pray the be nere

near

1059 When that I haue nede.

need

1060 Hayll, swete is thy chere!

sweet

1061 My hart wold blede

bleed

1062 To se the sytt here

sit

1063 In so poore wede,

garments

1064 With no pennys.

pennies

1065 Hayll! Put furth thy dall!

forth; your hand

1066 I bryng the bot a ball:

but

1067 Haue and play the withall,

with it

1068 And go to the tenys.

play tennis

MARIA

1069 The fader of heuen,

heaven

1070 God omnypotent,

1071 That sett all on seuen,

created all in seven [days]

1072 His son has he sent.

1073 My name couth he neuen,

called

1074 And lyght or he went.

alighted before

1075 I conceyuyd hym full euen

conceived him truly

1076 Thrugh myght as he ment,

God’s might, as He meant

1077 And now is he borne.

born

1078 He kepe you fro wo!

to keep you from woe

1079 I shall pray hym so.

to do so

1080 Tell furth as ye go,

make it known

1081 And myn on this morne.

remember this morning

PRIMUS PASTOR

1082 Fare well, lady

1083 So fare to beholde,

fair

1084 With thy childe on thi kne.

on your knees

SECUNDUS PASTOR

1085 Bot he lygys full cold.

lies

1086 Lord, well is me!

1087 Now we go, thou behold.

TERCIUS PASTOR

1088 Forsothe, allredy

1089 It semys to be told

it seems to have been told

1090 Full oft.

very often already

PRIMUS PASTOR

1091 What grace we haue fun!

found

SECUNDUS PASTOR

1092 Com furth; now ar we won!

now are we saved

TERCIUS PASTOR

1093 To syng ar we bun -

bound

1094 Let take on loft!

loudly

Explicit pagina Pastorum

the end of the Shepherds’ Pageant

Select Bibliography and Websites:

Context

Beadle, Richard. The Cambridge Companion to Medieval English Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

Brown, Peter, ed. The Blackwell Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture, c. 1350-1500. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2007.

Mincoff, Marco. A History of English Literature. Sofia: Pleiad, 1998.

Text

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook.asp

http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19481/19481-h/19481-h.htm 

http://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/anglica/Chronology/15thC/WakefieldMaster/wak_shep.html

Afterlife

An amateur production of Secunda Pastorum can be seen at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YNYssOXybz4

The production of mystery plays today has turned into a regular cultural event: http://www.yorkmysteryplays-2012.com/

Everyman

The late Medieval shift of emphasis from the triumphant Christ to the suffering Saviour was accompanied by a revival of Augustinian piety and a greater internalisation of the religious experience. The preoccupation with the soul as the stage of a human psychomachia resulted in the establishment of the genre of the Morality play, which dramatised the archetypal Christian antagonism between good and evil as reenacted in each human soul. The genre was also shaped by the contemporary Franciscan and Dominican emphasis on preaching and the sermon, and the doctrine of the Imitatio Christi, the good life modelled on the life of Christ, as expounded by Thomas a Kempis in De Imitatione Christi (ca.1418, English translation 1502).

An acknowledged masterpiece, Everyman (1495?) is a play about repentance and divine retribution. While the earlier Castle of Perseverance dramatises the story of human life in its entirety, Everyman concentrates on the final moment of death. Neither this focus, nor the probable Dutch source Elkerlijk leaves much space for comedy: the play has a sombre quality, atypical of medieval English drama. As its opening suggests, Everyman is a dramatic warning of “how ye hye fader of heven sendeth dethe to somon every creature to come and giyve a counte of theyr lyves in this worlde”. Its audiences are invited to strongly empathise with the protagonist’s anguish and horror in the face of death, construed as the moment of truth, a one-way voyage at the end of which humans have to present their reckoning of good and evil deeds to the High Judge. Ultimately, Everyman proposes the remedy of Good Deeds, which can guarantee the salvation of the soul. The concluding eschatological perspective turns the play into a comedy in Dante’s sense: as Everyman’s body steps down into the stage grave, his soul ascends to the celestial spheres, where it is welcomed by angelic song.   

E. P.

Text

EVERYMAN

Here begynneth a treatyse how yt hye

fader of heuen sendeth dethe to

heaven; death

somon euery creature to come and

summon

gyue counte of theyr liues in

give; account

this worlde and is in maner

of a morall playe.

CHORUS

1 I pray you all gyue your audyence

give

2 And here this mater with reuerence

hear; reverence

3 By fygure a morall playe

4 The somonynge of euery man called it is

summoning; every man

5 That of our lyues and endynge shewes

lives; shows

6 How transytory we be all daye

transitory

7 This mater is wonders precyous

precious

8 But the entent of it is more gracyous

intent; gracious

9 And swete to bere awaye.

sweet; bear

10 The story sayth man in the begynnynge

11 Loke well and take good heed to the endynge

look

12 Be you neuer so gay

never

13 Ye thynke synne in the begynnynge full swete

sweet

14 Whiche in the ende causeth the soule to wepe

soul; weep

15 Whan the body lyeth in claye

lies in clay

16 Here shall you se how felawshyp and Iolyte

fellowship; jollity

17 Bothe strengthe pleasure and beaute

18 Wyll fade from the as floure in maye

thee=you; flower

19 For ye shall here how our heuen kynge

ye=you; heavenly

20 Calleth euery man to a generall rekenynge

reckoning

21 Gyue audyence and here what he doth saye.

GOD SPEKETH

22 I perceyue here in my maieste

perceive; majesty

23 How that all creatures be to me vnkynde

unkind

24 Lyuynge without drede in worldely prosperyte

living; worldly prosperity

25 Of ghostly syght the people be so blynde

ghostly sight; blind[228]

26 Drowned in synne they know me not for theyr god

27 In worldely ryches is all theyr mynde

28 They fere not my ryghtwysnes the sharpe rood

righteousness; rod

29 My lawe that I shewed whan I for them dyed

30 They forgete clene and shedynge of my blode rede

completely; red blood

31 I hanged bytwene two it can not be denyed

between two[229]

32 To gete them lyfe I suffred to be deed

dead

33 I heled theyr fete with thornes hurt was my heed

healed; feet

34 I coulde do nomore than I dyde truely

did

35 And nowe I se the people do clene for sake me

see; forsake

36 They vse the seuen deedly synnes damphable

sins; damnable

37 As pryde coueteyse wrathe and lechery

covetousness

38 Now in the worlde be made commendable

39 And thus they leue of aungelles ye heuenly company

leave; the

40 Euery man lyueth so after his owne pleasure

lived

41 And yet of theyr lyfe they be nothinge sure

42 I se the more that I then forbere

see

43 The worse they be fro yere to yere

from year to year

44 All that lyueth appayreth faste

disappears

45 Therfore I wyll in all the haste

46 Haue a rekenynge of euery mannes persone

47 For and I leue the people thus alone

leave

48 In theyr lyfe and wycked tempestes

49 Verly they wyll become moche worse than beestes

truly; beasts

50 For now one wolde by enuy another vp ete

envy; eat up

51 Charyte they do all clene forgete

52 I hoped well that euery man

53 In my glory shulde make his mansyon

mansion

54 And therto I had them all electe

55 But now I se lyke traytours deiecte

traitors deject

56 They thanke me not for ye pleasure yt to them ment

56.1 Nor yet for theyr beynge that I them haue lent

being

57 I profered the people grete multytude of mercy

great

58 And fewe there be that asketh it hertly

heartily

59 They be so combred with worldly ryches

cumbered

60 That nedes on them I must do Iustyce

justice

61 On euery man lyuynge without fere

living; fear

62 Where arte thou deth thou myghty messengere

death

DETHE

63 Almyghty god I am here at your wyll

64 Your commaundement to fulfyll.

GOD

65 Go thou to euery man

66 And shewe hym in my name

show

67 A pylgrymage he must on him take

68 Which he in no wyse may escape

in no way

69 And that he brynge with him a sure rekenynge

70 Without delay or ony taryenge.

postponement

DETHE

71 Lorde I wyll in the worlde go renne ouer all

run

72 And cruelly out searche bothe grete and small

outsearch; great

73 Euery man wyll I beset that lyueth beestly

beastly

74 Out of goddes lawes and dredeth not foly

dreads

75 He that loueth rychesse I wyll stryke wt my darte

riches; dart

76 His sight to blynde and for heuen to departe

77 Excepte that almes be his good frende

good deeds

78 In hell for to dwell worlde without ende

79 Loo yonder I se Euery man walkynge

look; see

80 Full lytlell he thynketh on my comynge

he is unaware of my coming

81 His mynde is on flesshely lustes and his treasure

fleshly

82 And grete payne it shall cause hym to endure

83 Before the lorde heuen kinge

Heaven’s King

84 Euery man stande styll whyder arte thou goynge

where are you going

85 Thus gayly hast thou thy maker forgete.

your; forgotten

EVERYMAN

86 Why askest thou

87 Woldest thou wete

know

DETHE

88 Ye syr I wyll shewe you

89 In grete haste I am sende to the

you

90 From god out of his mageste

majesty

EVERYMAN

91 What sente to me.

what!

DETHE

92 Ye certaynly.

93 Thoughe thou haue forgete hym here

94 He thynketh on the in the heauenly spere

about you; heavenly sphere

95 As or we departe thou shalte knowe.

EVERYMAN

96 What desyreth god of me.

DETHE

97 That shall I shewe the.

98 A rekenynge he wyll nedes haue

99 Without ony lenger respite.

any longer respite

EVERYMAN

100 To gyue a rekenynge longer layser I craue

leisure; crave

101 This blynde mater troubleth my witte.

wit

DETHE

102 On the thou must take a longe Iourney

you; journey

103 Therefore thy boke of counte wt the thou brynge

book of count; with you

104 For turne agayne thou can not by no waye

turn back

105 And loke thou be sure of thy rekenynge

look

106 For before god thou shalt answere and shewe

107 Thy many badde dedes and good but a fewe

bad

108 How thou hast spente thy lyfe and in what wyse

in what way

109 Before the chefe lorde of paradyse

chief

110 Haue I do we were in that waye

get prepared to go

111 For wete thou well yu shalt make none attournay.

know

EVERYMAN

112 Full vnredy I am suche rekenynge to gyue

unready

113 I knowe the not what messenger arte thou.

are you

DETHE

114 I am dethe that no man dredeth

I fear no man

115 For euery man I rest and no man spareth

arrest

116 For it is gods commaundement

117 That all to me shold be obedyent.

obedient

EVERYMAN

118 O deth thou comest whan I had ye least in mynde

you

119 In thy power it lyeth me to saue

to save me

120 Yet of my good wyl I gyue ye yf thou wyl be kynde

give you

121 Ye a thousand pound shalte thou haue

shall

122 And dyffere this mater tyll an other daye

defer; another

DETHE

123 Euery man it may not be by no waye

124 I set not by golde syluer nor rychesse

cannot take

125 Nor by pope emperour kynge duke ne prynces

nor

126 For and I wolde receyue gyftes grete

if

127 All the worlde I myght gete

possess

128 But my custome is clene contrary

exactly

129 I gyue the no respyte come hens and not tary.

EVERYMAN

130 Alas shall I haue no lenger respyte

longer

131 I may saye deth geueth no warnynge

warning

132 To thynke on the it maketh my herte seke

you; heart sick

133 For all vnredy is my boke of rekenynge

134 But .xii. yere and I myght haue a bydynge

but in case; abiding

135 My countynge boke I wolde make so clere

clear

136 That my rekenynge I sholde not nede to fere

need to fear

137 Wherefore deth I praye the for goddes mercy

therefore

138 Spare me tyll I be prouyded of remedy.

provided

DETHE

139 The auayleth not to crye wepe and praye

availeth

140 But hast the lyghtly that yu were gone ye Iournaye

haste you

141 And preue thy frendes yf thou can

prove

142 For wete thou well the tyde abydeth no man

know; abides

143 And in the worlde eche lyuynge creature

each

144 For Adams synne must dye of nature.

EVERYMAN

145 Dethe yf I sholde this pylgrymage take

146 And my rekenynge suerly make

147 Shewe me for saynt charyte

saint charity

148 Sholde I not come agayne shortly.

come back

DETHE

149 No euery man and thou be ones there

once

150 Thou mayst neuer more come here

151 Trust me veryly.

truly

EVERYMAN

152 O gracyous god in the hye seat celestyall

high seat celestial

153 Haue mercy on me in this moost nede

most needful moment

154 Shall I haue no company fro this vale terestryall

vale terrestrial

155 Of myne acqueynce that way me to lede.

lead

DETHE

156 Ye yf ony be so hardy

brave

157 That wolde go with the and bere the company

158 Hye the that yu were gone to goddes magnyfycence

159 Thy rekenynge to gyue before his presence.

160 What weenest thou thy lyue is gyuen the

know; given to you

161 And thy worldely goodes also.

property

EVERYMAN

162 I had wende so verelye.

I used to think so

DETHE

163 Nay nay it was but lende the

no; lent to you

164 For as soone as thou arte go

you go

165 Another a whyle shall haue it and than go ther fro

for a while

166 Euen as thou hast done

just

167 Euery man yu arte made thou hast thy wyttes fyue

made; five wits

168 And here on erthe wyll not amende thy lyue

life

169 For sodeynly I do come.

EVERYMAN

170 O wretched caytyfe wheder shall I flee

prisoner; where

171 That I myght scape this endles sorowe.

escape

172 Now gentyll deth spare me tyll to morowe

173 That I may amende me

make amends

174 With good aduysement

advice

DETHE

175 Naye thereto I wyll not consent

no; to this

176 Nor no man wyll I respyte

177 But to the herte sodeynly I shall smyte

heart; suddenly; smite

178 Without ony aduyesment

warning

179 And now out of thy syght I wyll me hy

hurry

180 Se thou make the redy shortely

see; yourself

181 For thou mayst saye this is the daye

may

182 That no man lyuynge may scape a waye

away

EVERYMAN

183 Alas I may well wepe with syghes depe

sighs deep

184 Now haue I no maner of company

185 To helpe me in my Iourney and me to kepe

to protect me

186 And also my wrytynge is full vnredy

record; unready

187 How shall I do now for to excuse me

188 I wolde to god I had neuer begete

was never born

189 To my soule a full grete profyte it had be

190 For now I fere paynes huge and grete

fear pains huge and great

191 The tyme passeth lorde helpe that all wrought

that made everything

192 For though I mourne it auayleth nought

it is of no avail

193 The day passeth and is almoost ago

gone

194 I wote not well what for to do

do not know

195 To whome were I best my complaynt to make

196 What and I to felawshyp therof spake

197 And shewed hym of this sodeyne chaunce

sudden incident

198 For in hym is all myne affyaunce

all my confidence

199 We haue in the worlde so many a daye

200 Be good frendes in sporte and playe

201 I se hym yonder certaynely

see; there

202 I trust that he wyll bere me company

203 Therfore to hym wyll I speke to ese my sorowe

to ease

204 Well mette good felawshyp and good morowe.

FELAWSHIP

205 Euery man good morowe by this daye

206 Syr why lokest thou so pyteously

sir; look; piteously

207 If ony thynge be a mysse I praye the me saye

amiss; please tell me

208 That I may helpe to remedy.

EVERYMAN

209 Ye good felawshyp ye

210 I am in greate ieoparde.

jeopardy

211 My true frende shewe to me your mynde

212 I wyll not forsake the to my lyues ende

you; life’s end

213 In the waye of good company.

EVERYMAN

214 That was well spoken and louyngly.

lovingly

FELAWSHIP

215 Syr I must nedes knowe your heuynesse

heaviness

216 I haue pyte to se you in ony dystresse

pity

217 If ony haue you wronged ye shall reuenged be

have been wronged

218 Thoughe that I knowe before that I sholde dye.

die for you[230]

EVERYMAN

219 Veryly felawshyp gramercy.

truly; many thanks

FELAWSHIP

220 Tusshe by thy thankes I set not a strawe

tush; straw

221 Shewe me your grefe and saye no more.

tell me what worries you

EVERYMAN

222 If I my herte sholde to you breke

tell you my story

223 And than you to tourne your mynde fro me

turn away from me

224 And wolde not me comforte whan ye here me speke

225 Than sholde I tentymes soryer be.

ten times sorrier be

FELAWSHIP

226 Syr I saye as I will do in dede.

EVERYMAN

227 Than be you a good frende at nede

good friend in need

228 I haue found you true here before.

so far

FELAWSHIP

229 And so ye shall euermore

230 For in fayth and thou go to hell

231 I wyll not forsake the by the waye.

on the way

EVERYMAN

232 Ye speke lyke a good frende I byleue you well

believe

233 I shall deserue it and I may.

FELAWSHIP

234 I speke of no deseruynge by this daye

deserving

235 For he that wyll saye and nothynge do

236 Is not worthy with good company to go

237 Therfore shewe me the grefe of your mynde

238 As to your frende most louynge and kynde.

loving and kind

EVERYMAN

239 I shall shewe you how it is

240 Commaunded I am to go on a iournaye

241 A longe waye harde and daungerous

hard and dangerous

242 And gyue a strayte counte without delaye

straight account

243 Before the hye Iuge Adonay

high judge Adonai[231]

244 Wherfore I pray you bere me company

bear me company

245 As ye haue promysed in this iournaye.

FELAWSHIP

246 That is mater in dede promyse is duty

indeed

247 But and I sholde take suche a vyage on me

voyage

248 I knowe it well it shulde be to my payne

249 Also it make me aferde certayne

fear certainly

250 But let vs take counsell here as well as we can

251 For your wordes wolde fere a stronge man.

frighten

EVERYMAN

252 Why ye sayd yf I had nede

need

253 Ye wolde me neuer forsake quycke ne deed

alive nor dead

254 Thoughe it were to hell truely.

FELAWSHIP

255 So I sayd certaynely

256 But such pleasures be set a syde the sothe to saye

aside; truth to say

257 And also yf we toke suche a iournaye

258 Whan sholde we come agayne.

come back[232]

EVERYMAN

259 Naye neuer agayne tyll the daye of dome.

day of doom

FELAWSHIP

260 In fayth than wyll not I come there

261 who hath you these tydynges brought.

tidings

EVERYMAN

262 In dede death was with me here.

FELAWSHIP

263 Now by god that all hathe bought

redeemed us all

264 If deth were the messenger

265 For no man that is lyuynge to daye

266 I wyll not go that loth iournaye

loathsome

267 Not for the fader that bygate me.

EVERYMAN

268 Ye promysed other wyse parde.

by God

FELAWSHIP

269 I wote well I say so truely

270 And yet yf yu wylte ete & drynke & make good chere

cheer

271 Or haunt to women the lusty company

272 I wolde not forsake you whyle the daye is clere

clear

273 Truste me veryly

EVERYMAN

274 Ye therto ye wolde be redy

275 To go to myrthe solas and playe

276 Your mynde wyll soner apply

sooner

277 Than to bere me company in my longe iournaye.

FELAWSHIP

278 Now in good fayth I wyll not that waye

do it

279 But and thou wyll murder or ony man kyll

but if you wanted to; any

280 In that I wyll helpe the with a good wyll.

EVERYMAN

281 O that is a symple aduyse in dede

282 Gentyll felawe helpe me in my necessyte

283 We haue loued longe and now I nede

loved you; I am in need

284 And gentyll felawshyp remembre me.

FELAWSHIP

285 Wheder ye haue loued me or no

286 By saynt John I wyll not with the go.

EVERYMAN

287 Yet I pray the take ye labour & do so moche for me

288 To brynge me forwarde for saynt charyte

accompany me

289 And comforte me tyll I come without the towne.

out of the town

FELAWSHIP

290 Nay and thou wolde gyue me a newe gowne

gown

291 I wyll not a fote with the go

foot

292 But and yu had taryed I wolde not haue lefte the so

if you stayed

293 And as now god spede the in thy Iournaye

294 For from the I wyll departe as fast as I maye.

EVERYMAN

295 Wheder a waye felawshyp wyll yu forsake me.

where are you going

FELAWSHIP

296 Ye by my faye to god I be take the.

betake you

EVERYMAN

297 Farewell good felawshyp for ye my herte is sore

298 A dewe for euer I shall se the no more

adieu

FELAWSHIP

299 In fayth euery man fare well now at the ende

300 For you I wyll remembre ytptynge is mournynge.

that parting is mourning

EVERYMAN

301 A lacke shall we this departe in dede

alack; indeed

302 A lady helpe without ony more comforte

any

303 Lo felawshyp forsaketh me in my most nede

304 For helpe in this worlde wheder shall I resorte

305 Felawshyp here before with me wolde mery make

306 And now lytell sorowe for me dooth he take

little

307 It is sayd in prosperyte men frendes may fynde

308 Whiche in aduersyte be full vnkynde

adversity

309 Now wheder for socoure shall I flee

help

310 Syth that felawshyp hath forsaken me

311 To my kynnesman I wyll truely

kinsmen=relatives

312 Prayenge them to helpe me in my necessyte

praying

313 I byleue that they wyll do so

believe

314 For kynde wyll crepe where it may not go

kindred; creep

315 I wyll go saye for yonder I se them go

will put this to the test; there he comes[233]

316 Where be ye now my frendes and kynnesmen.

KINDREDE

317 Here we be now at your commaundement

318 Cosyn I praye you shewe vs your entent

intent

319 In ony wise and not spare.

whatever it is

COSYN

320 Ye euery man and to vs declare

321 Yf ye be dysposed to go ony whyder

wherever

322 For wete you well wyll lyue and dye to gyder.

together

KINDREDE

323 In welth and wo we wyll with you holde

wealth and woe

324 For ouer his kynne a man may be bolde.

proud

EVERYMAN

325 Gramercy my frendes and kynnesmen kynde

326 Now shall I shewe you the grefe of my mynde

327 I was commaunded by a messenger

328 That is a hye kynges chefe offycer

high king’s chief officer

329 He bad me go a pylgrymage to my payne

pain

330 And I knowe well I shall neuer come agayne

come back

331 Also I must gyue a rekenynge strayte

332 For I haue a grete enemy that hath me in wayte

has me in wait

333 Whiche entendeth me for to hynder.

intendeth; hinder

KINDREDE

334 What a counte is that which ye must render

335 That wolde I knowe.

I would like to know

EVERYMAN

336 Of all my workes I must shewe

337 How I haue lyued and my dayes spent

338 Also of yll dedes that I haue vsed

339 In my tyme syth lyfe was me lent

since life was lent to me

340 And of all vertues that I haue refused

341 Therfore I praye you go thyder with me

342 To helpe to make myn accounte for saynt charyte.

COSYN

343 What to go thyder is that the mater

344 Nay euery man I had leuer fast brede and water

I would rather fast on bread and water; five years and more[234]

345 All this fyue yere and more.

EVERYMAN

346 Alas that euer I was bore

born

347 For now shall I neuer be mery

348 If that you forsake me.

KINDREDE

349 A syr what ye be a mery man

350 Take good herte to you and make no mone

moan

351 But one thynge I warne you by saynt Anne

352 As for me ye shall go alone.

EVERYMAN

353 My cosyn wyll you not with me go.

COSYN

354 No by our lady I haue the cramp in my to

toe

355 Trust not to me for so god me spede

356 I wyll deceyue you in your moost nede.

KINDREDE

357 It auayleth not vs to tyse

avails; try to persuade us

358 Ye shall haue my mayde with all my herte

maid

359 She loueth to go to festes there to be nyse

feasts; nice

And to daunce and a brode to sterte[235]

dance, run about town

360 I wyll gyue her leue to helpe you in that Iourney

361 If that you and she may a gree.

EVERYMAN

362 Now shewe me the very effecte of your mynde

363 Wyll you go with me or abyde be hynde.

behind

KINDREDE

364 Abide behynde ye that wyll I and maye

365 Therfore farewell tyll another daye.

EVERYMAN

366 Howe sholde I be mery or gladde

glad

367 For fayre promyses men to me make

368 But whan I haue moost nede they me forsake

369 I am deceyued that maketh me sadde.

COSYN

370 Cosyn euery man farewell now

371 For veryly I wyl not go with you

372 Also of myne owne an vnredy rekenynge

373 I haue to accounte therfore I make taryenge

stay behind

374 Now god kepe the for now I go.

EVERYMAN

375 A Iesus is all come here to

come to this

376 Lo fayre wordes maketh fooles fayne

fair words maketh fools feign

377 They promyse and nothynge wyll do certayne

378 My kynnesmen promysed me faythfully

379 For to a byde with me stedfastly

abide; steadfastly

380 And now fast a waye do they flee

381 Euen so felawshyp promysed me

382 What frende were best me of to prouyde

383 I lose my tyme here longer to abyde

waste

384 Yet in my lyfe I haue loued ryches

385 If that my good now helpe me myght

386 He wolde make my herte full lyght

heart

387 I wyll speke to hym in this dystresse

388 Where arte thou my gooddes and ryches.

GOODES

389 Who calleth me euery man what hast thou haste

what is the matter

390 I lye here in corners trussed and pyled so hye

tucked and piled so high

391 And in chestes I am locked so fast

chests; securely

392 Also sacked in bagges thou mayst se with thyn eye

393 I can not styre in packes lowe I lye

move

394 What wolde ye haue lyghtly me saye.

EVERYMAN

395 Come hyder good in al the hast thou may

haste

396 For of counseyll I must desyre the.

counsel; you

GOODES

397 Syr & ye in the worlde haue sorowe or aduersyte

the world

398 That can I helpe you to remedy shortly.

EVERYMAN

399 It is another dysease that greueth me

annoyance; grieves

400 In this worlde it is not I tell the so

401 I am sent for an other way to go

402 To gyue a strayte counte generall

403 Before the hyest Iupyter of all

Jupiter

404 And all my lyfe I haue had Ioye & pleasure in the

joy; in you

405 Therefore I pray the go with me

406 For parauenture thou mayst before god almyghty

peradventure=maybe

407 My rekenynge helpe to clene and puryfye

purify

408 For it is sayd euer amonge

people say

409 That money maketh all ryght that is wronge.

GOODES

410 Nay euery man I synge an other songe

another

411 I folowe no man in suche vyages

412 For and I wente with the

if I came with you

413 Thou sholdes fare moche the worse for me

you would fare much worse because of me

414 For bycause on me thou dyd set thy mynde

415 Thy rekenynge I haue made blotted and blynde

416 That thyne accounte thou can not make truly

417 And that hast thou for the loue of me.

EVERYMAN

418 That wolde greue me full sore

419 Whan I sholde come to that ferefull answere

fearful

420 Vp let vs go thyther to gyder.

together

GOODES

421 Nay not so I am to brytell I may not endure

brittle

422 I wyll folowe man one fote be ye sure.

on foot

EVERYMAN

423 Alas I haue the loued and had grete pleasure

424 All my lyfe dayes on good and treasure.

GOODES

425 That is to thy dampnacyon without lesynge

damnation

426 For my loue is contrary to the loue euerlastynge

427 But yf thou had me loued moderately durynge

428 As to the poore gyue parte of me

429 Than sholdest thou not in this dolour be

430 Nor in this grote sorowe and care.

great

EVERYMAN

431 Lo now was I deceyued or I was ware

432 And all I may wyte my spendynge of tyme.

GOODES

433 What wenest thou that I am thyne.

thought

EVERYMAN

434 I had went so.

GOODES

435 Naye euery man I saye no

436 As for a whyle I was lente the

437 A season thou hast had me in prosperyte

438 My condycyon is mannes soule to kyll

condition; man’s

439 Yf I saue one a thousande I do spyll

destroy

440 Wenest thou that I wyll folowe the

441 Nay fro this worlde not veryle.

verily

EVERYMAN

442 I had wende otherwyse.

GOODES

443 Therfore to thy soule good is a thefe

goods; thief

444 For whan thou arte deed this is my gyse

dead; this is my mission

445 Another to deceyue in this same wyse

in the same way

446 As I haue done the and all to his soules reprefe.

to you; reproof

EVERYMAN

447 O false good cursed thou hast deceyued me

448 And caught me in thy snare.

GOODES

449 Mary thou brought thy selfe in care

trouble

450 Wherof I am gladde

451 I must nedes laugh I can not be sadde.

EVERYMAN

452 A good thou hast had longe my hertely loue

453 I gaue the that whiche sholde be the lordes aboue

belongs to the Lord above

454 But wylte thou not go with me in dede

455 I praye the trouth to saye.

truth

GOODES

456 No so god me spede

457 Therfore fare well and haue good daye.

EVERYMAN

458 O to whome shall I make my mone

moan

459 For to go with me in that heuy Iournaye

heavy

460 Fyrst felawshyp sayd he wolde with me gone

461 His wordes were very plesaunte and gaye

462 But afterwarde he lefte me alone

463 Than spake I to my kynnesmen all in despayre

464 An also they gaue me wordes fayre

465 They lacked no fayre spekynge

466 But all forsake me in the endynge

467 Then wente I to my goodes that I loued best

468 In hope to haue comforte but there had I leest

least

469 For my goodes sharpely dyd me tell

470 That he bryngeth many in to hell

471 Than of my selfe I was ashamed

472 And so I am worthy to be blamed

473 Thus may I wel my selfe hate

474 Of whome shall I now counsell take

475 I thynke that I shall neuer spede

476 Tyll that I go to my good dede

477 But alas she is so weke

478 That she can neuer go nor speke

479 Yet wyll I venter on her now

venture

480 My good dedes where be you.

GOOD DEDES

481 Here I lye colde in the grounde

482 Thy synnes hath me sore bounde

483 That I can not stere.

move

EVERYMAN

484 O good dedes I stand in fere

fear

485 I must you pray of counseyll

486 For helpe now sholde come ryght well.

GOOD DEDES

487 Euery man I haue vnderstandynge

488 That ye be somoned of a counte to make

489 Before Myssyas of Iherusalem kynge

Messias, of Jerusalem King

490 And you do by me yt Iournay wt you wyll I take.

by me

EVERYMAN

491 Therfor I come to you my moone to make

moan

492 I praye you that ye wyll go with me.

GOOD DEDES

493 I wolde full fayne but I can not stande veryly.

I cannot stand (on my feet)

EVERYMAN

494 Why is there ony thynge on you fall.

has anything fallen on you

GOOD DEDES

495 Ye syr I may thanke you of all

I should thank you for all

496 Yf ye had parfytely chered me

perfectly cheered

497 Your boke of counte full redy had be

would have been

498 Loke how the bokes of your workes and dedes eke

sum up

499 Ase how they lye vnder the fete

under the feet

500 To your soules heuynes.

heaviness

EVERYMAN

501 Our lorde Iesus helpe me

502 For one letter here I can not se.

see

GOOD DEDES

503 There is a blynde rekenynge in tyme of dystres.

EVERYMAN

504 Good dedes I praye you helpe me in this nede

505 Or elles I am for euer dampned in dede

506 Therfore helpe me to make rekenynge

507 Before the redemer of all thynge

508 That kynge is and was and euer shall.

GOOD DEDES

509 Euery man I am sory of your fall

510 And fayne wolde I helpe you and I were able.

if I were able

EVERYMAN

511 Good dedes your counseyll I pray you gyue me.

GOOD DEDES

512 That shall I do veryly

readily

513 Thoughe that on my fete I may not go

feet

514 I haue a syster that shall with you also

515 Called knowledge whiche shall with you abyde

516 To helpe you to make that dredefull rekenynge

KNOWLEDGE

517 Euery man I wyll go with the and be thy gyde

518 In thy moost nede to go by thy syde.

EVERYMAN

519 In good condycyon I am now in euery thynge

condition

520 And am hole content with this good thynge

wholly content

521 Thanked by god my creature.

God my creator

GOOD DEDES

522 And whan he hath brought you there

when

523 Where thou shalte hele the of thy smarte

heal you of your pain

524 Than go you wt your rekenynge & your good dedes togyder

524.1 For to make you Ioyfull at herte

525 Before the blessed trynyte.

Trinity

EVERYMAN

526 My good dedes gramercy

527 I am well content certaynly

528 With your wordes swete.

sweet

KNOWLEDGE

529 Now go we togyder louyngly

lovingly

530 To confessyon that clensyng ryuere.

Confession; cleansing river

EVERYMAN

531 For Ioy I wepe I wolde we were there

I wish we were there

532 But I pray you gyue me cognycyon

cognition

533 Where dwelleth that holy man confessyon.

KNOWLEDGE

534 In the hous of saluacyon

house of salvation

535 We shall fynde hym in that place

We shall find him in that place

536 That shall vs comforte by goddes grace

537 Lo this is confessyon knele downe & aske mercy

kneel

538 For he is in good conceyte with god almyghty.

high esteem

EVERYMAN

539 O gloryous fountayne yt all vnclennes doth claryfy

uncleanliness

540 Wasshe from me the spottes of vyce vnclene

vice unclean

541 That on me no synne may be sene

542 I come with knowledge for my redempcyon

redemption

543 Redempte with herte and full contrycyon

repent; heart

544 For I am commaunded a pylgrymage to take

545 And grete accountes before god to make

546 Now I praye you shryfte moder of saluacyon

shrift[236]

547 Helpe my good dedes for my pyteous exclamacyon.

piteous exclamation

CONFESSYON

548 I knowe your sorowe well euery man

549 Bycause with knowlege ye came to me

550 I wyll you comforte as well as I can

551 And a precyous Iewell I will gyue the

precious jewel

552 Called penaunce voyce voyder of aduersyte

wise voider of adversity

553 therwith shall your body chastysed be

chastised

554 With abstynence & perseueraunce in goddes seruyce

abstinence and perseverance

555 Here shall you receyue that scourge of me

scourge

556 Whiche is penaunce stronge that ye must endure

557 To remembre thy sauyour was scourged for the

for your sake

558 With sharpe scourges and suffred it pacyently

patiently

559 So must yu or thou scape that paynful pylgrymage

you or you;[237] escape

560 Knowlege kepe hym in this vyage

course

561 And hy tyme good dedes wyll be with the

high

562 But in ony wyse be seker of mercy

seeker

563 For your tyme draweth fast and ye wyll saued be

if you want to be saved

564 Aske god mercy and he wyll graunte truely

grant

565 Whan wt the scourge of penaunce man doth hym bynde

bond

566 The oyle of forgyuenes than shall he fynde.

oil of forgiveness

EVERYMAN

567 Thanked be god for his gracyous werke

work

568 For now I wyll my penaunce begyn

569 This hath reioysed and lyghted my herte

rejoiced

570 Though the knottes be paynfull and harde within

knots

KNOWLEDGE

571 Euery man loke your penaunce that ye fulfyll

572 What payne that euer it to you be

573 And knowledge shall gyue you counseyll at wyll

574 How your accounte ye shall make clerely.

EVERYMAN

575 O eternall god O heuenly fygure

576 O way of ryghtwysnes O goodly vysyon

righteousness; vision

577 Whiche descended downe in a vyrgyn pure

virgin

578 Bycause he wolde euery man redeme

wished to

579 Whiche Adam forfayted by his dysobedyence

forfeited; disobedience

580 O blessyd god heed electe and hye deuyne

Godhead; high-divine

581 Forgyve my greuous offence

582 Here I crye the mercy in this presence

583 O ghostly treasure. O ransomer and redemer

584 Of all the worlde hope and conduyter

conductor=guide

585 Myrrour of Ioye foundatour of mercy

mirror of joy; founder

586 Whiche enlumyneth heuen and erth therby

illuminates

587 Here my clamorous complaynt though it late be

588 Receyue my prayers vnworthy in this heuy lyfe

589 Though I be a synner moost abhomnynable

abominable

590 Yet let my name be wryten in moyses table

Moses’ table

591 O mary praye to the maker of all thynge

Mary

592 Me for to helpe at my endynge

593 And saue me fro the power of my enemy

594 For deth assayleth me strongly

assails

595 And lady that I may by meane of thy prayer

by means

596 Of your sones glory to be partynere

partaker

597 By the meanes of his passyon I it craue

598 I beseeche you helpe my soule to saue

599 Knowlege gyue me the scourge of penaunce

600 My flesshe therwith shall gyue acqueyntaunce

acquantance

601 I wyll now begyn yf god gyue me grace.

KNOWLEDGE

602 Euery man god gyue you tyme and space

603 Thus I bequeth you in ye handes of our sauyour

bequeath

604 Now may you make your rekenynge sure

EVERYMAN

605 In the name of the holy trynyte

606 My body sore punysshyd shall be

punished

607 Take this body for the synne of the flesse

flesh

608 Also thou delytest to go gay and fresshe

609 And in the way of dampnacyon yu dyd me brynge

bring

610 Therfore suffre now strokes of punysshynge

punishment

611 Now of penaunce I wyll wade the water clere

612 To saue me from purgatory that sharp fyre.

fire

GOOD DEDES

613 I thanke god now I can walke and go

614 And am delyuered of my sykenesse and wo

delivered; woe

615 Therfore with euery man I wyll go and not spare

spare (myslef)

616 His good workes I wyll helpe hym to declare.

KNOWLEDGE

617 Now euery man be mery and glad

618 Your good dedes cometh now ye may not be sad

619 Now is your good dedes hole and sounde

whole and sound

620 Goynge vpryght vpon the grounde.

EVERYMAN

621 My herte is lyght and shalbe euermore

shall be evermore

622 Now will I smite faster than I dyde before.

harder

GOOD DEDES

623 Euery man pylgryme my specyall frende

624 Blessed be thou without ende

625 For the is preparate the eternall glory

for you is prepared

626 Ye haue me made hole and sounde

627 Therfore I wyll byde by the in euery stounde.

remain with you; always

EVERYMAN

628 Welcome my good dedes now I here thy voyce

629 I wepe for very swetenes of loue.

sweetness of love

KNOWLEDGE

630 Be no more sad but euer reioyce

631 God seeth thy lyuynge in his trone aboue

632 Put on this garment to thy behoue

for your benefit

633 Whiche is wette with your teres

634 Or elles before god you may it mysse

be lacking it

635 Whan ye to your iourneys ende come shall.

EVERYMAN

636 Gentyll knowlege what do ye it call.

KNOWLEDGE

637 It is a garmente of sorowe

638 Fro payne it wyll you borowe

639 Contrycyon it is

640 That getteth forgyuenes

gains forgiveness

641 He pleasyth god passynge well.

very much

GOOD DEDES

642 Euery man wyll you were it for your hele.

wear; healing

EVERYMAN

643 Now blessyd be Iesu maryes sone

644 For now haue I on true contrycyon

645 And lette vs go now without taryenge

646 Good dedes haue we clere our rekenynge.

GOOD DEDES

647 Ye in dede I haue here.

EVERYMAN

648 Than I trust we nede not fere

fear

649 Now frendes let vs not parte in twayne.

separate

KNOWLEDGE

650 Nay euery man that wyll we not certayne.

GOOD DEDES

651 Yet must thou led with the

lead

652 Three persones of grete myght.

great might

EVERYMAN

653 Who sholde they be.

GOOD DEDES

654 Dyscrecyon and strength they hyght

Discretion;[238] they are called

655 And thy beaute may not abyde behynde.

Beauty

KNOWLEDGE

656 Also ye must call to mynde

657 Your fyue wyttes as for your counseylours.

Five-wits; counsellors

GOOD DEDES

658 You must haue them redy at all houres.

EVERYMAN

659 How shall I get them hyder.

hither

KYNDREDE

660 You must call them all togyder

661 And they wyll here you in contynent.

hear; and come together

EVERYMAN

662 My frendes come hyder and be present

663 Dyscrecyon strengthe my fyue wyttes and beaute.

BEAUTE

664 Here at your wyll we be all redy

ready

665 What wyll ye that we sholde do.

GOOD DEDES

666 That ye wolde with euery man go

667 And helpe hym in his pylgrymage

668 Aduyse you wyll ye with him or not in that vyage.

voyage

STRENGTHE

669 We wyll brynge hym all thyder

670 To his helpe and comforte ye may beleue me.

trust me

DISCRECION

671 So wyll we go with him all togyder.

EVERYMAN

672 Almyghty god loued myght thou be

beloved

673 I gyue the laude that I haue hyder brought

praise

674 Strength dyscrecyon beaute & .v. wyttes lack I nought

675 And my good dedes with knowlege clere

676 All be in my company at my wyll here

677 I desyre no more to my besynes.

business

STRENGTHE

678 And I strength wyll by you stande in dystres

by you(r side) stand in distress

679 Though thou wolde I batayle fyght in the grounde.

do battle; fight on the ground

V. WYTTES

680 And though it were thrugh the worlde rounde

681 We wyll not departe for swete ne soure.

better or worse

BEAUTE

682 No more wyll I vnto dethes houre

683 What so euer therof befall.

DISCRECION

684 Euery man aduyse you fyrst of all

685 Go with a good aduysement and delyberacyon

deliberation

686 We all gyue you vertuous monycyon

virtuous monition=instruction

687 That all shall be well.

EVERYMAN

688 My frendes harken what I wyll tell

listen

689 I praye god rewarde you in his heuen spere

heavenly sphere

690 Now herken all that be here

691 For I wyll make my testament

692 Here before you all present

693 In almes halfe my good I wyll gyue wt my handes twayne

694 In the way of charyte wt good entent

good intent

695 And the other halfe styll shall remayne

696 In queth to be retourned there it ought to be

bequest

697 This I do in despyte of the fende of hell

fiend

698 To go quyte out of his perell

peril

699 Euer after and this daye.

KNOWLEDGE

700 Euery man herken what I saye

701 Go to presthode I you aduyse

Priesthood

702 And receyue of him in ony wyse

in any wise

703 The holy sacrment and oyntement togyder

ointment together

704 Than shortly se ye tourne agayne hyder

quickly come back here

705 We wyll all abyde you here.

wait for you

V. WITTES

706 Ye euery man hye you that ye redy were

go quickly

707 There is no Emperour Kinge Duke ne Baron

708 That of god hath commycyon

commission

709 As hath the leest preest in the worlde beynge

least priest

710 For of the blessyd sacramentes pure and benygne

benign

711 He bereth the keyes and therof hath the cure

712 For mannes redempcyon it is euer sure

redemption

713 Whiche god for our soules medycyne

714 Gaue vs out of his herte with grete payne

715 Here in this transytory lyfe for the and me

716 The blessed sacramentes .vii. there be

seven[239]

717 Baptym confyrmacyon with preesthode good

baptism, confirmation

718 And ye sacrament of goddes precyous flesshe & blod

precious flesh and blood

719 Maryage the holy extreme vnccyon and penaunce

the holy extreme unction

720 These seuen be good to haue in remembraunce

721 Gracyous sacramentes of hye deuy[n]yte.

high divinity

EVERYMAN

722 Fayne wolde I receyue that holy body

723 And mekely to my ghostly fader I wyll go.

meekly; spiritual father

V. WITTES

724 Euery man that is the best that ye can do

725 God wyll you to saluacyon brynge

726 For preesthode excedeth all other thynge

727 To vs holy scrypture they do teche

teach

728 And conuerteth man fro synne heuen to reche

converteth; heaven to reach

729 God hath to them more power gyuen

730 Than to ony aungell that is in heuen

any angel

731 With .v. wordes he may consecrate

five words

732 Goddes body in flesse and blode to make

733 And handleth his maker bytwene his hande

734 The preest byndeth and vnbyndeth all bandes

binds and unbinds all bonds

735 Both in erthe and in heuen

736 Thou mynystres all the sacramentes seuen

737 Though we kysse thy fete thou were worthy

738 Thou arte surgyon that cureth synne deedly

surgeon that cures deadly sin

739 No remedy we fynde vnder god

740 Bute all onely preesthode

only Priesthood

741 Euery man god gaue preest that dygnyte

742 And setteth them in his stede amonge vs to be

set; in his stead

743 Thus be they aboue aungelles in degree.

KNOWLEDGE

744 If preestes be good it is so surely

sure[240]

745 But whan Iesu hanged on ye crosse wt grete smarte

pain

746 There he gaue out of his blessyd herte

747 The same sacrament in grete tourment

torment

748 He solde them not to vs that lorde omnypotent

749 Therefore saynt peter the apostell dothe saye

750 That Iesus curse hath all they

751 Whiche god theyr sauyour do by or sell

buy or sell

752 Or they for ony money do take or tell

753 Synfull preeste gyueth the synners example bad

754 Theyr chyldren sytteth by other mennes fyres I haue harde

sit by other men’s fires; heard

755 And some haunteth womens company

756 With vnclene lyfe as lustes of lechery

757 These be with synne made blynde.

V. WITTES

758 I trust to god no suche may we fynde

759 Therfore let vs preesthode honour

760 And followe theyr doctryne for our soules socoure

souls’ succour

761 We be theyr shepe and they shepeherdes be

762 By whome we all be kepte in suerte

surety

763 Peas for yonder I se euery man come

764 Whiche hath made true satysfaccyon.

satisfaction

GOOD DEDES

765 Me thynke it is he in dede.

EVERYMAN

766 Now Iesu be your alder spede

good speed to all of you[241]

767 I haue receyued the sacrament for my redemcyon

redemption

768 And than myne extreme vnccyon

unction

769 Blessyd be all they that counseyled me to take it

770 And now frendes let vs go with out longer respyte

without

771 I thanke god that ye haue taryed so longe

772 Now set eche of you on this rodde your honde

on this rod your hand

773 And shortely folowe me

closely

774 I go before there I wolde be God be your gyde.

STRENGTH

775 Euery man we wyll not fro you go

leave you

776 Tyll ye haue done this vyage longe.

DYSCRECION

777 I dyscrecyon wyll byde by you also.

stay by you

KNOWLEDGE

778 And though this pylgrymage be neuer so stronge

779 I wyll neuer parte you fro

780 Euery man I wyll be as sure by the

781 As euer I dyde by Iudas Machabee.

Judas Maccabee[242]

EVERYMAN

782 Alas I am so faynt I may not stande

783 My lymmes vnder me doth folde

limbs

784 Frendes let vs not tourne agayne to this lande

785 Not for all the worldes golde

786 For in this caue must I crepe

cave; creep

787 And tourne to erth and there to slepe.

turn to earth and there to sleep

BEAUTE

788 What in this graue alas.

EVERYMAN

789 Ye there shall ye consume more and lesse.

more and less[243]

BEAUTE

790 And what sholde I smoder here.

smother

EVERYMAN

791 Ye by my fayth and neuer more appere

nevermore

792 In this worlde lyue no more we shall

793 But in heuen before the hyest lorde of all.

BEAUTE

794 I crosse out all this adewe by saynt Iohan

adieu by Saint John

795 I take my tappe in my lappe and am gone.

my cap in my lap[244]

EVERYMAN

796 What beaute whyder wyll ye.

where will you (go)

BEAUTE

797 Peas I am defe I loke not behynde me

peace; deaf

798 Not & thou woldest gyue me all ye golde in thy chest.

not even if you gave me

EVERYMAN

799 Alas wherto may I truste

800 Beaute gothe fast awaye from me

801 She promysed with me to lyue and dye.

STRENGTH

802 Euery man I wyll the also forsake and denye

deny

803 Thy game lyketh me not at all.

I do not like your game

EVERYMAN

804 Why than ye wyll forsake me all

805 Swete strength tary a lytell space.

tarry=wait; space=time

STRENGTHE

806 Nay syr by the rode of grace

rood of grace=the Holy Cross

807 I will hye me from the fast

(away) from you

808 Though thou wepe to thy herte to brast.

burst to pieces

EVERYMAN

809 Ye wolde euer byde by me ye sayd.

I was there when you said it

STRENGTH

810 Ye I haue you ferre ynoughe conueyde

conveyed you far enough

811 Ye be olde ynoughe I vnderstande

812 Your pylgrymage to take on hande

continue on your own

813 I repent me that I hyder came.

EVERYMAN

814 Strength you to dysplease I am to blame

815 Wyll ye breke promyse that is dette.

debt=owed

STRENGTH

816 In fayth I care not

817 Thou arte but a foole to complayne

818 You spende your speche and wast your brayne

waste your brain

819 Go thryst the in to the grounde.

thrust yourself onto the ground

EVERYMAN

820 I had wende surer I shulde you haue founde

821 He that trusteth in his strength

822 She hym deceyueth at the length

823 Bothe strength and beaute forsaketh me

824 Yet they promysed me fayre and louyngly.

although

DYSCRECION

825 Euery man I will after strength be gone

826 As for me I will leue you alone.

EVERYMAN

827 Why dyscrecyon wyll ye forsake me.

DYSCRECION

828 Ye in fayth I wyll go fro the

829 For whan strength goth before

when

830 I folowe after euer more.

always

EVERYMAN

831 Yet I pray the for the loue of the trynyte

832 Loke in my graue ones pyteously.

once

DYSCRECYON

833 Nay so nye wyll I not come

834 Fare well euerychone.

farewell, everyone

EVERYMAN

835 O all thynge fayleth saue god alone

fail; save=except

836 Beaute strength and discrecyon

837 For whan deth bloweth his blast

838 They all renne fro me full fast.

run (away) from me

V. WITTES

839 Euery man my leue now of the I take

take his leave of you

840 I wyll folowe the other for here I the forsake.

EVERYMAN

841 Alas than may I wayle and wepe

wail and weep

842 For I took you for my best frende.

V. WITTES

843 I wyll no lenger the kepe

stay with you

844 Now fare well and there an ende.

EVERYMAN

845 O Iesu helpe all hath forsaken me.

GOOD DEDES

846 Nay euey man I will byde with the

847 I wyll not forsake the in dede

indeed

848 Thou shalte fynde me a good frende at nede.

in need

EVERYMAN

849 Gramercy good dedes now may I true frendes se

many thanks

850 They haue forsaken me euerychone

everyone

851 I loued them better than my good dedes alone

852 Knowlege wyll ye forsake me also.

KNOWLEDGE

853 Ye euery man whan ye to deth shall go

when

854 But not yet for no maner of daunger.

for any manner of danger

EVERYMAN

855 Gramercy knowlege with all my herte.

KNOWLEDGE

856 Nay yet I wyll not from hens departe

857 Tyll I se where ye shall be come.

arrive

EVERYMAN

858 Me thynke alas that I must be gone

859 To make my rekenynge and my dettes paye

pay my debts

860 For I se my tyme is nye spent awaye

nearly

861 Take example all ye that this do here or se

hear or see

862 How they that I loue best do forsake me

863 Excepte my good dedes that bydeth truely.

GOOD DEDES

864 All erthly thynges is but vanyte

earthly; vanity

865 Beaute strength and dyscrecyon do man forsake

866 Folysshe frendes and kynnesmen that fayre spake

foolish

867 All fleeth saue good dedes and that am I.

flee

EVERYMAN

868 Haue mercy on me god moost myghty

869 And stande by me thou moder & mayde holy Mary

Mother and Maid

GOOD DEDES

870 Fere not I wyll speke for the.

EVERYMAN

871 Here I crye god mercy.

GOOD DEDES

872 Shorte oure ende and mynysshe our payne

shorten; diminish our pain

873 Let vs go and neuer come agayne.

EVERYMAN

874 In to thy handes lorde my soule I commende

875 Receyue it lorde that it be not lost

876 As thou me boughtest so me defende

bought

877 And saue me from the fendes boost

the fiend’s boast

878 That I may appere with that blessyd hoost

blessed host

879 That shall be saued at the day of dome.

day of doom

880 In manus tuas of myghtes moost

In manus tuas…[245]

881 For euer Commendo spiritum meum.

KNOWLEDGE

882 Now hath he suffred that we all shall endure

882.1 The good dedes shall make all sure

883 Now hath he made endynge

884 Me thynketh that I here aungelles synge

885 And make grete Ioy and melody

886 Where euery mannes soule recyued shall be.

received

THE AUNGELL

887 Come excellent electe spouse to Iesu

888 Here aboue thou shalte go

889 Bycause of thy syngular vertue

singular virtue

890 Now the soule is taken the body fro

taken from the body

891 Thy rekenynge is crystall clere

892 Now shalte thou in to the heuenly spere

893 Vnto the whiche all ye shall come

894 That lyueth well before the daye of dome.

DOCTOUR

895 This morall men may haue in mynde

896 Ye hearers take it of worth olde and yonge

897 And forsake pryde for he deceyueth you in the ende

898 And remembre beaute .v. wyttes strength & dy[s]crecion

899 They all at the last do euery man forsake

900 Saue his good dedes there

901 dothe he take

902 But be ware and they be small

beware; if

903Before god he hath no helpe at all

904 None excuse may be there for euery man

905 Alas how shall he do than

906 For after dethe amendes may no man make

907 For than mercy and pyte doth hym forsake

then

908 If his rekenynge be not clere whan he doth come

909 God wyll saye (ite maledicti in ignem eternum)

ite maledicti…[246]

910 And he that hath his accounte hole and sounde

911 Hye in heuen he shall be crounde

high; crowned

912 Vnto whiche place god brynge vs all thyder

913 That we may lyue body and soule togyder

914 Therto helpe the trynyte

915 Amen saye ye for saynt charyte.

FINIS

Thus endeth this morall playe of EVERYMAN

Imprynted at London in Poules

Chyrche yarde by me

Johnn Skot.

Select bibliography and websites:

Text

Quincy Adams, J. Chief Pre-Shakespearean Dramas. London: George G. Harpar

http://socrates.acadiau.ca/courses/engl/rcunningham/1413-F09/Everyman.html

http://archive.org/stream/everymanwithothe00rhys/everymanwithothe00rhys_djvu.txt

A reading of the play: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nUr-kxiRc_E

Criticism

Beadle, R. (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Medieval English Theatre. Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Potter, R. A. The English Morality Play: Origins, History, and Influence of a Dramatic Tradition. London: Routledge, 1975.

Richardson, Christine, and Jackie Johnston. Medieval Drama. Macmillan, 1991.

Afterlife

The Austrian playwright Hugo von Hofmannsthal used Everyman as a source for his Jedermann, performed annually at the Salzburg Festival. Jean Sibelius wrote music for it.

The play was filmed in 1961 by Gottfried Reinhardt.

In 1979 Frederick Franck published a modern version, Everyone, recognisably influenced by  Buddhist ideas (Wildwood House, 1979).

John Farrell’s updated 2002 video version featured Death as a modern businessman and Goods as a personal computer.

A performance at Portland Community College, Performing Arts Center, in Spring 2012, at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JkM8v0m3URg&feature=related

Thomas Malory: Le Morte Darthur, Book II

Le Morte Darthur is a prose compilation of medieval romances by Sir Thomas Malory completed circa 1470 and published by William Caxton in 1485. The work survives both in a series of early print editions and a single manuscript discovered in the library of Winchester College in 1934. Some significant differences between the language and organisation of Caxton’s text and those of the Winchester Manuscript have been noted and thoroughly discussed by Eugene Vinaver and later researchers. Both sources contain the name of Sir Thomas Malory as well as the information that he is a knight prisoner, but there are several different historical figures that scholars associate with the author of Le Morte Darthur. The book tells the famous legend of King Arthur and the knights of the Round Table. It begins with Arthur’s birth, traces his rise to power, the founding of his kingdom and the Round Table, the various adventures of individual knights, the quest for the Holy Grail, the story of Lancelot and Guinevere, and ends with Arthur’s death. Malory draws from a variety of English and French sources which he freely retells, adapts, translates, and develops. The adventures of the knights he describes demonstrate the chivalric values endorsed by European aristocrats throughout the medieval period, but subtler critical parallels can also be drawn between Malory’s stories and the historical context of the Wars of the Roses that were fought during the author’s lifetime.

G.N.

Excerpt

CHAPTER I

Of a damosel which came girt with a sword for to find a man of such virtue to draw it out of the scabbard.

After the death of Uther Pendragon reigned Arthur his son, the which had great war in his days for to get all England into his hand. For there were many kings within the realm of England, and in Wales, Scotland, and Cornwall. So it befell on a time when King Arthur was at London, there came a knight and told the king tidings how that the King Rience of North Wales had reared[247] a great number of people, and were entered into the land, and burnt and slew the king’s true liege people.[248] If this be true, said Arthur, it were great shame unto mine estate but that he were mightily withstood. It is truth, said the knight, for I saw the host myself. Well, said the king, let make a cry, that all the lords, knights, and gentlemen of arms, should draw unto a castle called Camelot in those days, and there the king would let make a council-general and great jousts.

So when the king was come thither with all his baronage, and lodged as they seemed best, there was come a damosel the which was sent on message from the great lady Lile of Avelion. And when she came before King Arthur, she told from whom she came, and how she was sent on message unto him for these causes. Then she let her mantle fall that was richly furred; and then was she girt with a noble sword whereof the king had marvel, and said, Damosel, for what cause are ye girt with that sword? it beseemeth you not.[249] Now shall I tell you, said the damosel; this sword that I am girt withal doth me great sorrow and cumbrance, for I may not be delivered of this sword but by a knight, but he must be a passing good man of his hands and of his deeds, and without villainy or treachery, and without treason. And if I may find such a knight that hath all these virtues, he may draw out this sword out of the sheath, for I have been at King Rience’s[250] it was told me there were passing good knights, and he and all his knights have assayed it and none can speed.[251] This is a great marvel, said Arthur, if this be sooth; I will myself assay to draw out the sword, not presuming upon myself that I am the best knight, but that I will begin to draw at your sword in giving example to all the barons that they shall assay everych[252] one after other when I have assayed it. Then Arthur took the sword by the sheath and by the girdle and pulled at it eagerly, but the sword would not out.

Sir, said the damosel, you need not to pull half so hard, for he that shall pull it out shall do it with little might. Ye say well, said Arthur; now assay ye all my barons; but beware ye be not defiled with shame, treachery, nor guile. Then it will not avail, said the damosel, for he must be a clean knight without villainy, and of a gentle strain of father side and mother side. Most of all the barons of the Round Table that were there at that time assayed all by row, but there might none speed; wherefore the damosel made great sorrow out of measure, and said, Alas! I weened[253] in this court had been the best knights without treachery or treason. By my faith, said Arthur, here are good knights, as I deem, as any be in the world, but their grace is not to help you, wherefore I am displeased.

CHAPTER II

How Balin, arrayed like a poor knight, pulled out the sword, which afterward was the cause of his death.

Then fell it so that time there was a poor knight with King Arthur, that had been prisoner with him half a year and more for slaying of a knight, the which was cousin unto King Arthur. The name of this knight was called Balin, and by good means of the barons he was delivered out of prison, for he was a good man named of his body,[254] and he was born in Northumberland. And so he went privily[255] into the court, and saw this adventure, whereof it raised his heart, and he would assay it as other knights did, but for he was poor and poorly arrayed he put him not far in press.[256] But in his heart he was fully assured to do as well, if his grace happed him, as any knight that there was. And as the damosel took her leave of Arthur and of all the barons, so departing, this knight Balin called unto her, and said, Damosel, I pray you of your courtesy, suffer me as well to assay as these lords; though that I be so poorly clothed, in my heart meseemeth[257] I am fully assured as some of these others, and meseemeth in my heart to speed right well. The damosel beheld the poor knight, and saw he was a likely[258] man, but for his poor arrayment she thought he should be of no worship[259] without villainy or treachery. And then she said unto the knight, Sir, it needeth not to put me to more pain or labour, for it seemeth not you to speed there as other have failed. Ah! fair damosel, said Balin, worthiness, and good tatches,[260] and good deeds, are not only in arrayment, but manhood and worship is hid within man’s person, and many a worshipful knight is not known unto all people, and therefore worship and hardiness is not in arrayment. By God, said the damosel, ye say sooth;[261] therefore ye shall assay to do what ye may. Then Balin took the sword by the girdle and sheath, and drew it out easily; and when he looked on the sword it pleased him much. Then had the king and all the barons great marvel that Balin had done that adventure, and many knights had great despite of Balin. Certes, said the damosel, this is a passing good knight, and the best that ever I found, and most of worship without treason, treachery, or villainy, and many marvels shall he do. Now, gentle and courteous knight, give me the sword again. Nay, said Balin, for this sword will I keep, but it be taken from me with force. Well, said the damosel, ye are not wise to keep the sword from me, for ye shall slay with the sword the best friend that ye have, and the man that ye most love in the world, and the sword shall be your destruction. I shall take the adventure, said Balin, that God will ordain me, but the sword ye shall not have at this time, by the faith of my body. Ye shall repent it within short time, said the damosel, for I would have the sword more for your avail than for mine, for I am passing heavy[262] for your sake; for ye will not believe that sword shall be your destruction, and that is great pity. With that the damosel departed, making great sorrow.

Anon after, Balin sent for his horse and armour, and so would depart from the court, and took his leave of King Arthur. Nay, said the king, I suppose ye will not depart so lightly from this fellowship, I suppose ye are displeased that I have shewed you unkindness; blame me the less, for I was misinformed against you, but I weened ye had not been such a knight as ye are, of worship and prowess, and if ye will abide in this court among my fellowship, I shall so advance you as ye shall be pleased. God thank your highness, said Balin, your bounty and highness may no man praise half to the value; but at this time I must needs depart, beseeching you alway of your good grace. Truly, said the king, I am right wroth for your departing; I pray you, fair knight, that ye tarry not long, and ye shall be right welcome to me, and to my barons, and I shall amend all miss that I have done against you; God thank your great lordship, said Balin, and therewith made him ready to depart. Then the most part of the knights of the Round Table said that Balin did not this adventure all only by might, but by witchcraft.

CHAPTER III

How the Lady of the Lake demanded the knight’s head that had won the sword, or the maiden’s head.

The meanwhile, that this knight was making him ready to depart, there came into the court a lady that hight[263] the Lady of the Lake. And she came on horseback, richly beseen,[264] and saluted King Arthur, and there asked him a gift that he promised her when she gave him the sword. That is sooth, said Arthur, a gift I promised you, but I have forgotten the name of my sword that ye gave me. The name of it, said the lady, is Excalibur, that is as much to say as Cut-steel. Ye say well, said the king; ask what ye will and ye shall have it, an it lie in my power to give it. Well, said the lady, I ask the head of the knight that hath won the sword, or else the damosel’s head that brought it; I take no force though[265] I have both their heads, for he slew my brother, a good knight and a true, and that gentlewoman was causer of my father’s death. Truly, said King Arthur, I may not grant neither of their heads with my worship,[266] therefore ask what ye will else, and I shall fulfil your desire. I will ask none other thing, said the lady. When Balin was ready to depart, he saw the Lady of the Lake, that by her means had slain Balin’s mother, and he had sought her three years; and when it was told him that she asked his head of King Arthur, he went to her straight and said, Evil be you found; ye would have my head, and therefore ye shall lose yours, and with his sword lightly he smote off her head before King Arthur. Alas, for shame! said Arthur, why have ye done so? ye have shamed me and all my court, for this was a lady that I was beholden to, and hither she came under my safe-conduct; I shall never forgive you that trespass. Sir, said Balin, me forthinketh[267] of your displeasure, for this same lady was the untruest lady living, and by enchantment and sorcery she hath been the destroyer of many good knights, and she was causer that my mother was burnt, through her falsehood and treachery. What cause soever[268] ye had, said Arthur, ye should have forborne her in my presence; therefore, think not the contrary, ye shall repent it, for such another despite had I never in my court; therefore withdraw you out of my court in all haste ye may.

Then Balin took up the head of the lady, and bare it with him to his hostelry, and there he met with his squire, that was sorry he had displeased King Arthur and so they rode forth out of the town. Now, said Balin, we must depart, take thou this head and bear it to my friends, and tell them how I have sped, and tell my friends in Northumberland that my most foe is dead. Also tell them how I am out of prison, and what adventure befell me at the getting of this sword. Alas! said the squire, ye are greatly to blame for to displease King Arthur. As for that, said Balin, I will hie me, in all the haste that I may, to meet with King Rience and destroy him, either else to die therefore; and if it may hap me to win him, then will King Arthur be my good and gracious lord. Where shall I meet with you? said the squire. In King Arthur’s court, said Balin. So his squire and he departed at that time. Then King Arthur and all the court made great dole and had shame of the death of the Lady of the Lake. Then the king buried her richly.

CHAPTER IV

How Merlin told the adventure of this damosel.

At that time there was a knight, the which was the king’s son of Ireland, and his name was Lanceor, the which was an orgulous knight, and counted himself one of the best of the court; and he had great despite at Balin for the achieving of the sword, that any should be accounted more hardy, or more of prowess; and he asked King Arthur if he would give him leave to ride after Balin and to revenge the despite that he had done. Do your best, said Arthur, I am right wroth with Balin; I would he were quit of the despite that he hath done to me and to my court. [269] Then this Lanceor went to his hostelry to make him ready. In the meanwhile came Merlin unto the court of King Arthur, and there was told him the adventure of the sword, and the death of the Lady of the Lake. Now shall I say you, said Merlin; this same damosel that here standeth, that brought the sword unto your court, I shall tell you the cause of her coming: she was the falsest damosel that liveth. Say not so, said they. She hath a brother, a passing good knight of prowess and a full true man; and this damosel loved another knight that held her to paramour, and this good knight her brother met with the knight that held her to paramour, and slew him by force of his hands. When this false damosel understood this, she went to the Lady Lile of Avelion, and besought her of help, to be avenged on her own brother.

CHAPTER V

How Balin was pursued by Sir Lanceor, knight of Ireland, and how he jousted and slew him.

And so this Lady Lile of Avelion took[270] her this sword that she brought with her, and told there should no man pull it out of the sheath but if he be one of the best knights of this realm, and he should be hard and full of prowess, and with that sword he should slay her brother. This was the cause that the damosel came into this court. I know it as well as ye. Would God she had not come into this court, but she came never in fellowship of worship to do good, but always great harm; and that knight that hath achieved the sword shall be destroyed by that sword, for the which will be great damage, for there liveth not a knight of more prowess than he is, and he shall do unto you, my Lord Arthur, great honour and kindness; and it is great pity he shall not endure but a while, for of his strength and hardiness I know not his match living.

So the knight of Ireland armed him at all points, and dressed his shield on his shoulder, and mounted upon horseback, and took his lance in his hand, and rode after a great pace, as much as his horse might go; and within a little space on a mountain he had a sight of Balin, and with a loud voice he cried, Abide,[271] knight, for ye shall abide whether ye will or nill,[272] and the shield that is to-fore you shall not help. When Balin heard the noise, he turned his horse fiercely, and said, Fair knight, what will ye with me, will ye joust with me? Yea, said the Irish knight, therefore come I after you. Peradventure, said Balin, it had been better to have holden you at home, for many a man weeneth to put his enemy to a rebuke, and oft it falleth to himself. Of what court be ye sent from? said Balin. I am come from the court of King Arthur, said the knight of Ireland, that come hither for to revenge the despite ye did this day to King Arthur and to his court. Well, said Balin, I see well I must have ado with you, that me forthinketh for to grieve King Arthur, or any of his court; and your quarrel is full simple, said Balin, unto me, for the lady that is dead, did me great damage, and else would I have been loath as any knight that liveth for to slay a lady. Make you ready, said the knight Lanceor, and dress[273] you unto me, for that one shall abide in the field. Then they took their spears, and came together as much as their horses might drive, and the Irish knight smote Balin on the shield, that all went shivers off his spear, and Balin hit him through the shield, and the hauberk[274] perished, and so pierced through his body and the horse’s croup,[275] and anon turned his horse fiercely, and drew out his sword, and wist not[276] that he had slain him; and then he saw him lie as a dead corpse.

CHAPTER VI

How a damosel, which was love to Lanceor, slew herself for love, and how Balin met with his brother Balan.

Then he looked by him, and was ware of a damosel that came riding full fast as the horse might ride, on a fair palfrey. And when she espied that Lanceor was slain, she made sorrow out of measure, and said, O Balin, two bodies thou hast slain and one heart, and two hearts in one body, and two souls thou hast lost. And therewith she took the sword from her love that lay dead, and fell to the ground in a swoon. And when she arose she made great dole out of measure, the which sorrow grieved Balin passingly sore, and he went unto her for to have taken the sword out of her hand, but she held it so fast he might not take it out of her hand unless he should have hurt her, and suddenly she set the pommel to the ground, and rove[277] herself through the body. When Balin espied her deeds, he was passing heavy in his heart, and ashamed that so fair a damosel had destroyed herself for the love of his death. Alas, said Balin, me repenteth sore the death of this knight, for the love of this damosel, for there was much true love betwixt them both, and for sorrow might not longer behold him, but turned his horse and looked toward a great forest, and there he was ware, by the arms,[278] of his brother Balan. And when they were met they put off their helms and kissed together, and wept for joy and pity. Then Balan said, I little weened to have met with you at this sudden adventure; I am right glad of your deliverance out of your dolorous prisonment, for a man told me, in the castle of Four Stones, that ye were delivered, and that man had seen you in the court of King Arthur, and therefore I came hither into this country, for here I supposed to find you. Anon the knight Balin told his brother of his adventure of the sword, and of the death of the Lady of the Lake, and how King Arthur was displeased with him. Wherefore he sent this knight after me, that lieth here dead, and the death of this damosel grieveth me sore. So doth it me, said Balan, but ye must take the adventure that God will ordain you. Truly, said Balin, I am right heavy that my Lord Arthur is displeased with me, for he is the most worshipful knight that reigneth now on earth, and his love will I get or else will I put my life in adventure. For the King Rience lieth at a siege at the Castle Terrabil, and thither will we draw in all haste, to prove our worship and prowess upon him. I will well, said Balan, that we do, and we will help each other as brethren ought to do.

CHAPTER VII

How a dwarf reproved Balin for the death of Lanceor, and how King Mark of Cornwall found them, and made a tomb over them.

Now go we hence, said Balin, and well be we met. The meanwhile as they talked, there came a dwarf from the city of Camelot on horseback, as much as he might; and found the dead bodies, wherefore he made great dole, and pulled out his hair for sorrow, and said, Which of you knights have done this deed? Whereby askest thou it? said Balan. For I would wit it, said the dwarf. It was I, said Balin, that slew this knight in my defence, for hither he came to chase me, and either I must slay him or he me; and this damosel slew herself for his love, which repenteth me, and for her sake I shall owe all women the better love. Alas, said the dwarf, thou hast done great damage unto thyself, for this knight that is here dead was one of the most valiantest men that lived, and trust well, Balin, the kin of this knight will chase you through the world till they have slain you. As for that, said Balin, I fear not greatly, but I am right heavy that I have displeased my lord King Arthur, for the death of this knight. So as they talked together, there came a king of Cornwall riding, the which hight King Mark. And when he saw these two bodies dead, and understood how they were dead, by the two knights above said, then made the king great sorrow for the true love that was betwixt them, and said, I will not depart till I have on this earth made a tomb, and there he pight[279] his pavilions and sought through all the country to find a tomb, and in a church they found one was fair and rich, and then the king let put them both in the earth, and put the tomb upon them, and wrote the names of them both on the tomb. How here lieth Lanceor the king’s son of Ireland, that at his own request was slain by the hands of Balin; and how his lady, Colombe, and paramour, slew herself with her love’s sword for dole and sorrow.

CHAPTER VIII

How Merlin prophesied that two the best knights of the world should fight there, which were Sir Lancelot and Sir Tristram.

The meanwhile as this was a-doing,[280] in came Merlin to King Mark, and seeing all his doing, said, Here shall be in this same place the greatest battle betwixt two knights that was or ever shall be, and the truest lovers, and yet none of them shall slay other. And there Merlin wrote their names upon the tomb with letters of gold that should fight in that place, whose names were Launcelot de Lake, and Tristram. Thou art a marvellous man, said King Mark unto Merlin, that speakest of such marvels, thou art a boistous man and an unlikely to tell of such deeds.[281] What is thy name? said King Mark. At this time, said Merlin, I will not tell, but at that time when Sir Tristram is taken with his sovereign lady, then ye shall hear and know my name, and at that time ye shall hear tidings that shall not please you. Then said Merlin to Balin, Thou hast done thyself great hurt, because that thou savest not this lady that slew herself, that might have saved her an thou wouldest. By the faith of my body, said Balin, I might not save her, for she slew herself suddenly. Me repenteth, said Merlin; because of the death of that lady thou shalt strike a stroke most dolorous that ever man struck, except the stroke of our Lord, for thou shalt hurt the truest knight and the man of most worship that now liveth, and through that stroke three kingdoms shall be in great poverty, misery and wretchedness twelve years, and the knight shall not be whole of that wound[282] for many years. Then Merlin took his leave of Balin. And Balin said, If I wist it were sooth that ye say I should do such a perilous deed as that, I would slay myself to make thee a liar. Therewith Merlin vanished away suddenly. And then Balan and his brother took their leave of King Mark. First, said the king, tell me your name. Sir, said Balan, ye may see he beareth two swords, thereby ye may call him the Knight with the Two Swords. And so departed King Mark unto Camelot to King Arthur, and Balin took the way toward King Rience; and as they rode together they met with Merlin disguised, but they knew him not. Whither ride you? said Merlin. We have little to do, said the two knights, to tell thee.[283] But what is thy name? said Balin. At this time, said Merlin, I will not tell it thee. It is evil seen,[284] said the knights, that thou art a true man that thou wilt not tell thy name. As for that, said Merlin, be it as it be may, I can tell you wherefore ye ride this way, for to meet King Rience; but it will not avail you without ye have my counsel. Ah! said Balin, ye are Merlin; we will be ruled by your counsel. Come on, said Merlin, ye shall have great worship, and look that ye do knightly, for ye shall have great need. As for that, said Balin, dread you not, we will do what we may.

CHAPTER IX

How Balin and his brother, by the counsel of Merlin, took King Rience and brought him to King Arthur.

Then Merlin lodged them in a wood among leaves beside the highway, and took off the bridles of their horses and put them to grass and laid them down to rest them till it was nigh midnight. Then Merlin bade them rise, and make them ready, for the king was nigh them, that was stolen away from his host with a three score horses of his best knights, and twenty of them rode to-fore to warn the Lady de Vance that the king was coming; for that night King Rience should have lain with her. Which is the king? said Balin. Abide, said Merlin, here in a strait way ye shall meet with him; and therewith he showed Balin and his brother where he rode.

Anon Balin and his brother met with the king, and smote him down, and wounded him fiercely, and laid him to the ground; and there they slew on the right hand and the left hand, and slew more than forty of his men, and the remnant fled. Then went they again to King Rience and would have slain him had he not yielded him unto their grace. Then said he thus: Knights full of prowess, slay me not, for by my life ye may win, and by my death ye shall win nothing. Then said these two knights, Ye say sooth and truth, and so laid him on a horse-litter. With that Merlin was vanished, and came to King Arthur aforehand,[285] and told him how his most enemy was taken and discomfited.[286] By whom? said King Arthur. By two knights, said Merlin, that would please your lordship, and to-morrow ye shall know what knights they are. Anon after came the Knight with the Two Swords and Balan his brother, and brought with them King Rience of North Wales, and there delivered him to the porters, and charged them with him; and so they two returned again in the dawning of the day. King Arthur came then to King Rience, and said, Sir king, ye are welcome: by what adventure come ye hither? Sir, said King Rience, I came hither by an hard adventure. Who won you? said King Arthur. Sir, said the king, the Knight with the Two Swords and his brother, which are two marvellous knights of prowess. I know them not, said Arthur, but much I am beholden to them. Ah, said Merlin, I shall tell you: it is Balin that achieved the sword, and his brother Balan, a good knight, there liveth not a better of prowess and of worthiness, and it shall be the greatest dole of him that ever I knew of knight, for he shall not long endure. Alas, said King Arthur, that is great pity; for I am much beholden unto him, and I have ill deserved it unto him for his kindness.[287] Nay, said Merlin, he shall do much more for you, and that shall ye know in haste. But, sir, are ye purveyed,[288] said Merlin, for to-morn the host of Nero, King Rience’s brother, will set on you or[289] noon with a great host, and therefore make you ready, for I will depart from you.

CHAPTER X

How King Arthur had a battle against Nero and King Lot of Orkney, and how King Lot was deceived by Merlin, and how twelve kings were slain.

Then King Arthur made ready his host in ten battles and Nero was ready in the field afore the Castle Terrabil with a great host, and he had ten battles, with many more people than Arthur had. Then Nero had the vanguard with the most part of his people, and Merlin came to King Lot of the Isle of Orkney, and held him with a tale of prophecy, till Nero and his people were destroyed. And there Sir Kay the seneschal[290] did passingly well, that the days of his life the worship went never from him; and Sir Hervis de Revel did marvellous deeds with King Arthur, and King Arthur slew that day twenty knights and maimed forty. At that time came in the Knight with the Two Swords and his brother Balan, but they two did so marvellously that the king and all the knights marvelled of them, and all they that beheld them said they were sent from heaven as angels, or devils from hell; and King Arthur said himself they were the best knights that ever he saw, for they gave such strokes that all men had wonder of them.

In the meanwhile came one to King Lot, and told him while he tarried there Nero was destroyed and slain with all his people. Alas, said King Lot, I am ashamed, for by my default there is many a worshipful man slain, for as we had been together there had been none host under the heaven that had been able for to have matched with us; this faiter[291] with his prophecy hath mocked me. All that did Merlin, for he knew well that an[292] King Lot had been with his body[293] there at the first battle, King Arthur had been slain, and all his people destroyed; and well Merlin knew that one of the kings should be dead that day, and loath was Merlin that any of them both should be slain; but of the twain, he had liefer[294] King Lot had been slain than King Arthur. Now what is best to do? said King Lot of Orkney; whether is me better to treat with King Arthur or to fight, for the greater part of our people are slain and destroyed? Sir, said a knight, set on Arthur for they are weary and forfoughten[295] and we be fresh. As for me, said King Lot, I would every knight would do his part as I would do mine. And then they advanced banners and smote together and all to-shivered their spears; and Arthur’s knights, with the help of the Knight with the Two Swords and his brother Balan put King Lot and his host to the worse. But always King Lot held him in the foremost front, and did marvellous deeds of arms, for all his host was borne up by his hands, for he abode all knights. Alas he might not endure, the which was great pity, that so worthy a knight as he was one should be overmatched, that of late time afore had been a knight of King Arthur’s, and wedded the sister of King Arthur; and for King Arthur lay by King Lot’s wife, the which was Arthur’s sister, and gat on her Mordred, therefore King Lot held against Arthur. So there was a knight that was called the Knight with the Strange Beast, and at that time his right name was called Pellinore, the which was a good man of prowess, and he smote a mighty stroke at King Lot as he fought with all his enemies, and he failed of his stroke, and smote the horse’s neck, that he fell to the ground with King Lot. And therewith anon Pellinore smote him a great stroke through the helm and head unto the brows. And then all the host of Orkney fled for the death of King Lot, and there were slain many mothers’ sons. But King Pellinore bare the wite[296] of the death of King Lot, wherefore Sir Gawaine revenged the death of his father the tenth year after he was made knight, and slew King Pellinore with his own hands. Also there were slain at that battle twelve kings on the side of King Lot with Nero, and all were buried in the Church of Saint Stephen’s in Camelot, and the remnant of knights and of others were buried in a great rock.

CHAPTER XI

Of the interment of twelve kings, and of the prophecy of Merlin, and how Balin should give the dolorous stroke.

So at the interment[297] came King Lot’s wife Margawse with her four sons, Gawaine, Agravaine, Gaheris, and Gareth. Also there came thither King Uriens, Sir Ewaine’s father, and Morgan le Fay his wife that was King Arthur’s sister. All these came to the interment. But of all these twelve kings King Arthur let make the tomb of King Lot passing richly, and made his tomb by his own; and then Arthur let make twelve images of latten and copper, and over-gilt it with gold, in the sign of twelve kings, and each one of them held a taper of wax that burnt day and night; and King Arthur was made in sign of a figure standing above them with a sword drawn in his hand, and all the twelve figures had countenance like unto men that were overcome. All this made Merlin by his subtle craft, and there he told the king, When I am dead these tapers shall burn no longer, and soon after the adventures of the Sangreal[298] shall come among you and be achieved. Also he told Arthur how Balin the worshipful knight shall give the dolorous stroke, whereof shall fall great vengeance. Oh, where is Balin and Balan and Pellinore? said King Arthur. As for Pellinore, said Merlin, he will meet with you soon; and as for Balin he will not be long from you; but the other brother will depart, ye shall see him no more. By my faith, said Arthur, they are two marvellous knights, and namely Balin passeth of prowess of any knight that ever I found, for much beholden am I unto him; would God he would abide[299] with me. Sir, said Merlin, look ye keep well the scabbard of Excalibur, for ye shall lose no blood while ye have the scabbard upon you, though ye have as many wounds upon you as ye may have. So after, for great trust, Arthur betook the scabbard to Morgan le Fay his sister, and she loved another knight better than her husband King Uriens or King Arthur, and she would have had Arthur her brother slain, and therefore she let make another scabbard like it by enchantment, and gave the scabbard Excalibur to her love; and the knight’s name was called Accolon, that after had near slain King Arthur. After this Merlin told unto King Arthur of the prophecy that there should be a great battle beside Salisbury, and Mordred his own son should be against him. Also he told him that Basdemegus was his cousin, and germain[300] unto King Uriens.

CHAPTER XII

How a sorrowful knight came before Arthur, and how Balin fetched him, and how that knight was slain by a knight invisible.

Within a day or two King Arthur was somewhat sick, and he let pitch his pavilion in a meadow, and there he laid him down on a pallet to sleep, but he might have no rest. Right so he heard a great noise of an horse, and therewith the king looked out at the porch of the pavilion, and saw a knight coming even by him, making great dole. Abide, fair sir, said Arthur, and tell me wherefore thou makest this sorrow. Ye may little amend[301] me, said the knight, and so passed forth to the castle of Meliot. Anon after there came Balin, and when he saw King Arthur he alighted off his horse, and came to the King on foot, and saluted him. By my head, said Arthur, ye be welcome. Sir, right now came riding this way a knight making great mourn, for what cause I cannot tell; wherefore I would desire of you of your courtesy and of your gentleness to fetch again that knight either by force or else by his good will. I will do more for your lordship than that, said Balin; and so he rode more than a pace, and found the knight with a damosel in a forest, and said, Sir knight, ye must come with me unto King Arthur, for to tell him of your sorrow. That will I not, said the knight, for it will scathe[302] me greatly, and do you none avail. Sir, said Balin, I pray you make you ready, for ye must go with me, or else I must fight with you and bring you by force, and that were me loath to do. Will ye be my warrant, said the knight, an[303] I go with you? Yea, said Balin, or else I will die therefore. And so he made him ready to go with Balin, and left the damosel still. And as they were even afore King Arthur’s pavilion, there came one invisible, and smote this knight that went with Balin throughout the body with a spear. Alas, said the knight, I am slain under your conduct with a knight called Garlon; therefore take my horse that is better than yours, and ride to the damosel, and follow the quest that I was in as she will lead you, and revenge my death when ye may. That shall I do, said Balin, and that I make vow unto knighthood; and so he departed from this knight with great sorrow. So King Arthur let bury this knight richly, and made a mention on his tomb, how there was slain Herlews le Berbeus, and by whom the treachery was done, the knight Garlon. But ever the damosel bare the truncheon of the spear with her that Sir Herlews was slain withal.

CHAPTER XIII

How Balin and the damosel met with a knight which was in likewise slain, and how the damosel bled for the custom of a castle.

So Balin and the damosel rode into a forest, and there met with a knight that had been a-hunting, and that knight asked Balin for what cause he made so great sorrow. Me list not to tell you, said Balin. Now, said the knight, an I were armed as ye be I would fight with you. That should little need, said Balin, I am not afeard to tell you, and told him all the cause how it was. Ah, said the knight, is this all? here I ensure you by the faith of my body never to depart from you while my life lasteth. And so they went to the hostelry and armed them, and so rode forth with Balin. And as they came by an hermitage even by a churchyard, there came the knight Garlon invisible, and smote this knight, Perin de Mountbeliard, through the body with a spear. Alas, said the knight, I am slain by this traitor knight that rideth invisible. Alas, said Balin, it is not the first despite[304] he hath done me; and there the hermit and Balin buried the knight under a rich stone and a tomb royal. And on the morn they found letters of gold written, how Sir Gawaine shall revenge his father’s death, King Lot, on the King Pellinore. Anon after this Balin and the damosel rode till they came to a castle, and there Balin alighted, and he and the damosel went to go into the castle, and anon as Balin came within the castle’s gate the portcullis fell down at his back, and there fell many men about the damosel, and would have slain her. When Balin saw that, he was sore aggrieved, for he might not help the damosel. Then he went up into the tower, and leapt over walls into the ditch, and hurt him not; and anon he pulled out his sword and would have foughten with them. And they all said nay, they would not fight with him, for they did nothing but the old custom of the castle; and told him how their lady was sick, and had lain many years, and she might not be whole[305] but if she had a dish of silver full of blood of a clean maid and a king’s daughter; and therefore the custom of this castle is, there shall no damosel pass this way but she shall bleed of her blood in a silver dish full. Well, said Balin, she shall bleed as much as she may bleed, but I will not lose the life of her whiles my life lasteth. And so Balin made her to bleed by her good will, but her blood helped not the lady. And so he and she rested there all night, and had there right good cheer, and on the morn they passed on their ways. And as it telleth after in the Sangreal, that Sir Percivale’s sister helped that lady with her blood, whereof she was dead.

CHAPTER XIV

How Balin met with that knight named Garlon at a feast, and there he slew him, to have his blood to heal therewith the son of his host.

Then they rode three or four days and never met with adventure, and by hap they were lodged with a gentle man that was a rich man and well at ease. And as they sat at their supper Balin overheard one complain grievously by him in a chair. What is this noise? said Balin. Forsooth, said his host, I will tell you. I was but late at a jousting, and there I jousted with a knight that is brother unto King Pellam, and twice smote I him down, and then he promised to quit me on my best friend; and so he wounded my son, that cannot be whole till I have of that knight’s blood, and he rideth alway invisible; but I know not his name. Ah! said Balin, I know that knight, his name is Garlon, he hath slain two knights of mine in the same manner, therefore I had liefer meet with that knight than all the gold in this realm, for the despite he hath done me. Well, said his host, I shall tell you, King Pellam of Listeneise hath made do cry[306] in all this country a great feast that shall be within these twenty days, and no knight may come there but if he bring his wife with him, or his paramour; and that knight, your enemy and mine, ye shall see that day. Then I behote[307] you, said Balin, part of his blood to heal your son withal. We will be forward to-morn, said his host. So on the morn they rode all three toward Pellam, and they had fifteen days’ journey or they came thither; and that same day began the great feast. And so they alighted and stabled their horses, and went into the castle; but Balin’s host might not be let in because he had no lady. Then Balin was well received and brought unto a chamber and unarmed him; and there were brought him robes to his pleasure, and would have had Balin leave his sword behind him. Nay, said Balin, that do I not, for it is the custom of my country a knight always to keep his weapon with him, and that custom will I keep, or else I will depart as I came. Then they gave him leave to wear his sword, and so he went unto the castle, and was set among knights of worship, and his lady afore him.

Soon Balin asked a knight, Is there not a knight in this court whose name is Garlon? Yonder he goeth, said a knight, he with the black face; he is the marvellest knight that is now living, for he destroyeth many good knights, for he goeth invisible. Ah well, said Balin, is that he? Then Balin advised him long: If I slay him here I shall not escape, and if I leave him now, peradventure I shall never meet with him again at such a steven,[308] and much harm he will do an[309] he live. Therewith this Garlon espied that this Balin beheld him, and then he came and smote Balin on the face with the back of his hand, and said, Knight, why beholdest me so? for shame therefore, eat thy meat and do that thou came for. Thou sayest sooth, said Balin, this is not the first despite that thou hast done me, and therefore I will do what I came for, and rose up fiercely and clave his head to the shoulders. Give me the truncheon,[310] said Balin to his lady, wherewith he slew your knight. Anon she gave it him, for alway she bare the truncheon with her. And therewith Balin smote him through the body, and said openly, With that truncheon thou hast slain a good knight, and now it sticketh in thy body. And then Balin called unto him his host, saying, Now may ye fetch blood enough to heal your son withal.

CHAPTER XV

How Balin fought with King Pellam, and how his sword brake, and how he gat a spear wherewith he smote the dolorous stroke.

Anon all the knights arose from the table for to set on Balin, and King Pellam himself arose up fiercely, and said, Knight, hast thou slain my brother? thou shalt die therefore or thou depart. Well, said Balin, do it yourself. Yes, said King Pellam, there shall no man have ado with thee but myself, for the love of my brother. Then King Pellam caught in his hand a grim weapon and smote eagerly at Balin; but Balin put the sword betwixt his head and the stroke, and therewith his sword burst in sunder. And when Balin was weaponless he ran into a chamber for to seek some weapon, and so from chamber to chamber, and no weapon he could find, and always King Pellam after him. And at the last he entered into a chamber that was marvellously well dight[311] and richly, and a bed arrayed with cloth of gold, the richest that might be thought, and one lying therein, and thereby stood a table of clean gold with four pillars of silver that bare up the table, and upon the table stood a marvellous spear strangely wrought. And when Balin saw that spear, he gat it in his hand and turned him to King Pellam, and smote him passingly sore with that spear, that King Pellam fell down in a swoon,[312] and therewith the castle roof and walls brake and fell to the earth, and Balin fell down so that he might not stir foot nor hand. And so the most part of the castle, that was fallen down through that dolorous stroke, lay upon Pellam and Balin three days.

CHAPTER XVI

How Balin was delivered by Merlin, and saved a knight that would have slain himself for love.

Then Merlin came thither and took up Balin, and gat[313] him a good horse, for his was dead, and bade him ride out of that country. I would have my damosel, said Balin. Lo, said Merlin, where she lieth dead. And King Pellam lay so, many years sore wounded, and might never be whole till Galahad the haut prince healed him in the quest of the Sangreal, for in that place was part of the blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, that Joseph of Arimathea brought into this land, and there himself lay in that rich bed. And that was the same spear that Longius smote our Lord to the heart; and King Pellam was nigh of Joseph’s kin, and that was the most worshipful man that lived in those days, and great pity it was of his hurt, for through that stroke, turned to great dole, tray and tene.[314] Then departed Balin from Merlin, and said, In this world we meet never no more. So he rode forth through the fair countries and cities, and found the people dead, slain on every side. And all that were alive cried, O Balin, thou hast caused great damage in these countries; for the dolorous stroke thou gavest unto King Pellam three countries are destroyed, and doubt not but the vengeance will fall on thee at the last. When Balin was past those countries he was passing fain.[315]

So he rode eight days or[316] he met with adventure. And at the last he came into a fair forest in a valley, and was ware[317] of a tower, and there beside he saw a great horse of war, tied to a tree, and there beside sat a fair knight on the ground and made great mourning, and he was a likely man, and a well made. Balin said, God save you, why be ye so heavy? tell me and I will amend it, an I may, to my power. Sir knight, said he again, thou dost me great grief, for I was in merry thoughts, and now thou puttest me to more pain. Balin went a little from him, and looked on his horse; then heard Balin him say thus: Ah, fair lady, why have ye broken my promise, for thou promisest me to meet me here by noon, and I may curse thee that ever ye gave me this sword, for with this sword I slay myself, and pulled it out. And therewith Balin stert[318] unto him and took him by the hand. Let go my hand, said the knight, or else I shall slay thee. That shall not need, said Balin, for I shall promise you my help to get you your lady, an ye will tell me where she is. What is your name? said the knight. My name is Balin le Savage. Ah, sir, I know you well enough, ye are the Knight with the Two Swords, and the man of most prowess of your hands living. What is your name? said Balin. My name is Garnish of the Mount, a poor man’s son, but by my prowess and hardiness a duke hath made me knight, and gave me lands; his name is Duke Hermel, and his daughter is she that I love, and she me as I deemed. How far is she hence? said Balin. But six mile, said the knight. Now ride we hence, said these two knights. So they rode more than a pace, till that they came to a fair castle well walled and ditched. I will into the castle, said Balin, and look if she be there. So he went in and searched from chamber to chamber, and found her bed, but she was not there. Then Balin looked into a fair little garden, and under a laurel tree he saw her lie upon a quilt of green samite[319] and a knight in her arms, fast halsing[320] either other, and under their heads grass and herbs. When Balin saw her lie so with the foulest knight that ever he saw, and she a fair lady, then Balin went through all the chambers again, and told the knight how he found her as she had slept fast, and so brought him in the place there she lay fast sleeping.

CHAPTER XVII

How that knight slew his love and a knight lying by her, and after, how he slew himself with his own sword, and how Balin rode toward a castle where he lost his life.

And when Garnish beheld her so lying, for pure sorrow his mouth and nose burst out a-bleeding, and with his sword he smote off both their heads, and then he made sorrow out of measure, and said, O Balin, much sorrow hast thou brought unto me, for hadst thou not shewed me that sight I should have passed my sorrow.[321] Forsooth, said Balin, I did it to this intent that it should better[322] thy courage, and that ye might see and know her falsehood, and to cause you to leave love of such a lady; God knoweth I did none other but as I would ye did to me. Alas, said Garnish, now is my sorrow double that I may not endure, now have I slain that I most loved in all my life; and therewith suddenly he rove himself on his own sword unto the hilts. When Balin saw that, he dressed him thenceward,[323] lest folk would say he had slain them; and so he rode forth, and within three days he came by a cross, and thereon were letters of gold written, that said, It is not for no knight alone to ride toward this castle. Then saw he an old hoar gentleman coming toward him, that said, Balin le Savage, thou passest thy bounds to come this way, therefore turn again and it will avail thee. And he vanished away anon; and so he heard an horn blow as it had been the death of a beast. That blast, said Balin, is blown for me, for I am the prize and yet am I not dead. Anon withal he saw an hundred ladies and many knights, that welcomed him with fair semblant,[324] and made him passing good cheer unto his sight, and led him into the castle, and there was dancing and minstrelsy and all manner of joy. Then the chief lady of the castle said, Knight with the Two Swords, ye must have ado and joust with a knight hereby that keepeth an island, for there may no man pass this way but he must joust or he pass. That is an unhappy custom, said Balin, that a knight may not pass this way but if he joust. Ye shall not have ado but with one knight, said the lady.

Well, said Balin, since I shall thereto I am ready, but travelling men are oft weary and their horses too, but though my horse be weary my heart is not weary, I would be fain there my death should be.[325] Sir, said a knight to Balin, methinketh your shield is not good, I will lend you a bigger. Thereof I pray you. And so he took the shield that was unknown and left his own, and so rode unto the island, and put him and his horse in a great boat; and when he came on the other side he met with a damosel, and she said, O knight Balin, why have ye left your own shield? alas ye have put yourself in great danger, for by your shield ye should have been known; it is great pity of you as ever was of knight, for of thy prowess and hardiness thou hast no fellow living. Me repenteth, said Balin, that ever I came within this country, but I may not turn now again for shame, and what adventure shall fall to me, be it life or death, I will take the adventure that shall come to me. And then he looked on his armour, and understood he was well armed, and therewith blessed him and mounted upon his horse.

CHAPTER XVIII

How Balin met with his brother Balan, and how each of them slew other unknown, till they were wounded to death.

Then afore him he saw come riding out of a castle a knight, and his horse trapped all red, and himself in the same colour. When this knight in the red beheld Balin, him thought it should be his brother Balin by cause of his two swords, but by cause he knew not his shield he deemed it was not he. And so they aventryd[326] their spears and came marvellously fast together, and they smote each other in the shields, but their spears and their course were so big that it bare down horse and man, that they lay both in a swoon. But Balin was bruised sore with the fall of his horse, for he was weary of travel. And Balan was the first that rose on foot and drew his sword, and went toward Balin, and he arose and went against him; but Balan smote Balin first, and he put up his shield and smote him through the shield and tamed his helm. Then Balin smote him again with that unhappy sword, and well-nigh had felled his brother Balan, and so they fought there together till their breaths failed. Then Balin looked up to the castle and saw the towers stand full of ladies. So they went unto battle again, and wounded everych other dolefully, and then they breathed ofttimes, and so went unto battle that all the place there as they fought was blood red. And at that time there was none of them both but they had either smitten other seven great wounds, so that the least of them might have been the death of the mightiest giant in this world.

Then they went to battle again so marvellously that doubt it was to hear of that battle for the great blood-shedding, and their hauberks unnailed that naked they were on every side. At last Balan the younger brother withdrew him a little and laid him down. Then said Balin le Savage, What knight art thou? for or now I found never no knight that matched me. My name is, said he, Balan, brother unto the good knight, Balin. Alas, said Balin, that ever I should see this day, and therewith he fell backward in a swoon. Then Balan yede[327] on all four feet and hands, and put off the helm off his brother, and might not know him by the visage it was so ful hewn and bled; but when he awoke he said, O Balan, my brother, thou hast slain me and I thee, wherefore all the wide world shall speak of us both. Alas, said Balan, that ever I saw this day, that through mishap I might not know you, for I espied well your two swords, but by cause ye had another shield I deemed ye had been another knight. Alas, said Balin, all that made an unhappy knight in the castle, for he caused me to leave my own shield to our both’s destruction, and if I might live I would destroy that castle for ill customs. That were well done, said Balan, for I had never grace to depart from them since that I came hither, for here it happed me to slay a knight that kept this island, and since might I never depart, and no more should ye, brother, an ye might have slain me as ye have, and escaped yourself with the life.

Right so came the lady of the tower with four knights and six ladies and six yeomen unto them, and there she heard how they made their moan either to other, and said, We came both out of one womb, that is to say one mother’s belly, and so shall we lie both in one pit. So Balan prayed the lady of her gentleness, for his true service, that she would bury them both in that same place there the battle was done. And she granted them, with weeping, it should be done richly in the best manner. Now, will ye send for a priest, that we may receive our sacrament, and receive the blessed body of our Lord Jesus Christ? Yea, said the lady, it shall be done; and so she sent for a priest and gave them their rights. Now, said Balin, when we are buried in one tomb, and the mention made over us how two brethren slew each other, there will never good knight, nor good man, see our tomb but they will pray for our souls. And so all the ladies and gentlewomen wept for pity. Then anon Balan died, but Balin died not till the midnight after, and so were they buried both, and the lady let make a mention of Balan how he was there slain by his brother’s hands, but she knew not Balin’s name.

CHAPTER XIX

How Merlin buried them both in one tomb, and of Balin’s sword.

In the morn came Merlin and let write Balin’s name on the tomb with letters of gold, that Here lieth Balin le Savage that was the Knight with the Two Swords, and he that smote the Dolorous Stroke. Also Merlin let make there a bed, that there should never man lie therein but he went out of his wit, yet Launcelot de Lake fordid[328] that bed through his noblesse. And anon after Balin was dead, Merlin took his sword, and took off the pommel and set on another pommel. So Merlin bade a knight that stood afore him handle that sword, and he assayed, and he might not handle it. Then Merlin laughed. Why laugh ye? said the knight. This is the cause, said Merlin: there shall never man handle this sword but the best knight of the world, and that shall be Sir Launcelot or else Galahad his son, and Launcelot with this sword shall slay the man that in the world he loved best, that shall be Sir Gawaine. All this he let write in the pommel of the sword. Then Merlin let make a bridge of iron and of steel into that island, and it was but half a foot broad, and there shall never man pass that bridge, nor have hardiness to go over, but if he were a passing good man and a good knight without treachery or villainy. Also the scabbard of Balin’s sword Merlin left it on this side the island, that Galahad should find it. Also Merlin let make by his subtilty[329] that Balin’s sword was put in a marble stone standing upright as great as a mill stone, and the stone hoved always above the water and did many years, and so by adventure it swam down the stream to the City of Camelot, that is in English Winchester. And that same day Galahad the haut prince came with King Arthur, and so Galahad brought with him the scabbard and achieved the sword that was there in the marble stone hoving[330] upon the water. And on Whitsunday he achieved the sword as it is rehearsed[331] in the book of Sangreal.

Soon after this was done Merlin came to King Arthur and told him of the dolorous stroke that Balin gave to King Pellam, and how Balin and Balan fought together the marvellest battle that ever was heard of, and how they were buried both in one tomb. Alas, said King Arthur, this is the greatest pity that ever I heard tell of two knights, for in the world I know not such two knights. Thus endeth the tale of Balin and of Balan, two brethren born in Northumberland, good knights.

Select Bibliography and Websites:

Context

Archibald, Elizabeth and Ad Putter, eds. The Cambridge Companion to the Arthurian Legend. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Lupack, Alan. The Oxford Guide to Arthurian Literature and Legend. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Mincoff, Marco. A History of English Literature. Sofia: Pleiad, 1998.

Шурбанов, Александър. “Безсмъртието на Артур” в Поетика на английския ренесанс. София: УИ „Св. Климент Охридски”, 2004.

Text

The Camelot Project at the University of Rochester provides free access to scholarly electronic versions of virtually every text related to the Arthurian legend: http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/cphome.stm

http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/cme/malorywks2

http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/Mal1Mor.html

http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12753

Sample pages of the Winchester Manuscript can be seen at:

http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/englit/malory/

http://www.bl.uk/treasures/malory/homepage.html

Afterlife

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/anglo_saxons/arthur_01.shtml

http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00tg2q2

Film productions based on Malory’s text include:

http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0045966/

http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0082348/

http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0113071/

http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0349683/

http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0071853/

Recommended reading

General

Brown, Peter (ed.). A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture. Chichester: Wiley-   Blackwell, 2009. SVR 820.9001 COM

Chambers, E. K. English Literature at the Close of the Middle Ages. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1947. SV 820.8 CHA

Godden, Malcolm, and Michael Lapidge (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. SV 829.0920

Gransden, Antonia. Legends, Tradition and History in Medieval England. Bloomsbury, 1992. SV 942.03 GRA

Lambdin, Laura C., and Robert T. Lambdin. A Companion to Old and Middle English Literature. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002.

McGrade, A. S. The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. SV 189.22

McGrath, Alister E., and Alister Edgar. The Intellectual Origins of the European Reformation. Malden, MA Blackwell 2004. SV 274.06 MCG

Mincoff, Marco. A History of English Literature. Sofia: Pleiad, 1998. SV 820.9 MIN

Mitchell, Bruce. An Invitation to Old English and Anglo-Saxon England. Wiley-Blackwell, 1994.

Myers, A. R. England in the Late Middle Ages (1307-1536). Penguin Books, 1952. SV 942.2 MYE

Page, R. I. Life in Anglo-Saxon England. London: Batsford; New York: Putnam, 1970.

Pulsiano, Philip, and Elaine Treharne (eds.). A Companion to Anglo-Saxon Literature. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2001. SV 829.0922

Stenton, Doris Mary. English Society in the Early Middle Ages (1066-1307). Penguin Books, 1991. SV 942.02 STE

Trapp, J. B. (ed.). Medieval English Literature (Oxford Anthology of English Literature). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. SV 820.8001 TRA

Veldhoen, N. H. G. E., and H. Aertsen (eds.) Companion to Early Middle English Literature. Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1995. SV 820.900120 VEL

Wallace, David (ed.). The Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. SVR 820.9001 CAM

Specific Critical Studies

Alford, John A. A Companion to Piers Plowman. London: University of California Press, 1988.

Archibald, Elizabeth, and Ad Putter (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to the Arthurian Legend. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Beadle, Richard. The Cambridge Companion to Medieval English Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. SV 792.0942

Bjork, Robert E., and John D. Niles (eds.). A Beowulf Handbook. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997.

Boitani, Piero, and Jill Mann (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Chaucer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. SV 821.1 CAM

Brewer, Derek. A New Introduction to Chaucer. London and New York: Longman, 1998. SV 821.1 BRE

Brewer, Elizabeth. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: Sources and Analogues. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973.

Brown, Peter. A Companion to Chaucer. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000. SV 821.1 COM

Chute, Marchette Gaylord. Geoffrey Chaucer of England. E. P. Dutton, 1946. SV 821.17 CHU

Donoghue, Daniel. Old English Literature: A Short Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. SV 829.0922 DON

Ford, Boris. Medieval Literature, Chaucer and the Alliterative Tradition. Penguin Books, 1990. SV 820.9 FOR

Friedman, John B. Orpheus in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970.

Harris, John Wesley. Medieval Theatre in Context: An Introduction. Routledge, 1990. SV 792.09 HAR

Hussey, S. S. (ed.) Piers Plowman. Critical Approaches. Methuen, 1969.

Hussey, S. S. Chaucer: An Introduction. Routledge, 1981. SV 821.1 HUS

Lupack, Alan. The Oxford Guide to Arthurian Literature and Legend. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Pearsall, Derek Albert . Arthurian Romance: A Short Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. SV 809.93351 PEA

Richardson, Christine, and Jackie Johnston. Medieval Drama. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991. SV 822.109

Saunders, Corinne. A Companion to Medieval Poetry. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

Simpson, James. Piers Plowman. An Introduction.  University of Exeter Press, 2007.

Swanton, Michael James (ed.). The Dream of the Rood. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 1970.

Treharne, Elaine, and Duncan Wu (eds.). Old English and Middle English Poetry. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.

Vasta, Edward (ed.). Interpretations of Piers Plowman. University of Notre Dame Press, 1968.

Wickham, Glynne. The Medieval Theatre. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980. SV 792.094 WIC

Шурбанов, Александър. “Безсмъртието на Артур”. В: Поетика на английския ренесанс. София: УИ „Св. Климент Охридски“, 2004, с. 135-155.

[1] King of the Danes, son of Healfdene, member of the royal line of the Scyldings.

[2] Legendary Danish royal lineage descending from Scyld Scefing whose story is told in the first lines of the poem.

[3] Queen of the Danes, wife to Hrothgar.

[4] A man-eating monster who tormented king Hrothgar and his people.

[5] In medieval Scandinavia and Germanic Europe the great hall of the king was the heart of the kingdom, the place where the richest feasts and entertainment were provided and where the king's power and ability to protect his people were felt at their best. King Hrothgar's hall, Heorot, was the most magnificent of its time.

[6] The Geats were North Germanic people who inhabited the lands that today are southern Sweden.

[7] The Weder Geats.

[8] In Anglo-Saxon culture Wyrd is a mythological figure that represents fate. The Old English noun derives from the verb weorþan, to become.

[9] Beowulf is nephew to Hygelac, the king of the Geats.

[10] Middangeard, the middle world, is the world of humans in early Germanic cosmology.

[11] A proleptic reference to the future end of Heorot, which according to the poem was burnt down in the strife between Hrothgar's successors.

[12] Sigemund is a mythical hero famous for slaying a dragon.

[13] Sigemund was the son of Waels.

[14] Fitela is Sigemund's child from his sister Signy, hence both nephew and son.

[15] The prince.

[16] Heremod was a Danish king from the time before the Scyldings.

[17] Ecglaf's son is Unferth, the warrior who questioned Beowulf's strength in the beginning of the poem.

[18] Hrothgar's nephew.

[19] The Ingwines are a North Germanic group of peoples inhabiting the North Sea coastal areas of Jutland, Holstein, Frisia, and the Danish islands.

[20] The text manifests an awareness of the Chistian scheme of things.

[21] Row.

[22] The original has hrimcealde, i.e., ice-cold, a typical instance of the compound adjectives characteristic of Old English poetry.

[23] The original has Wyrd – the Anglo-Saxon concept of the turn of events, or Fate.

[24] Always.

[25] Mind.

[26] Thoughts.

[27] Perform anything helpful.

[28] The original has goldwine = gold-friend, which is a typical instance of the kenning, the compressed metaphor of old English verse.

[29] The lord’s knees.

[30] The original has giefstola = gift-stool, throne.

[31] Literally OE reordberend means “voice-bearer”, i.e., human being. The choice of kenning here foreshadows the fact that later on in the poem the Holy Cross becomes reordberend.

[32] Christ was pierced with a spear in his right side while he was on the cross. Cf. John 19:31-37.

[33] Meadow blossoms.

[34] Wood.

[35] Leaps.

[36] Farts.

[37] Cease.

[38] Matchless, mateless.

[39] As.

[40] Chose.

[41] Where.

[42] Mother.

[43] Such.

[44] Jeff Rider, “Receiving Orpheus in the Middle Ages: Allegorization, Remythification and Sir Orfeo.” Papers on Literature & Language 24 (1988), p. 356.

[45] Ibid.

[46] Published in The Middle English Breton Lays. Kalamazoo, Michigan: Medieval Institute Publications, 1995. http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/orfint.htm

[47] The Prologue echoes Marie de France's Prologue to her collection of Lais.

[48] Pluto is the king of the Greek underworld, while Juno is Jupiter's wife. The medieval minstrel turns her into a man.

[49] Thrace is conflated with Winchester, the old capital of England.

[50] Euridice's counterpart.

[51]Compare the surviving May Day celebrations, such as the Irish Bealtaine, and the figure of the May Queen.

[52] Folklore and Christianity associate noon with peril.

[53] Sixty suggests many, while one hundred and ten hundred imply an indefinite number (ll. 143-44, l. 183).

[54] Lines 102-16 echo medieval meditations on Christ's body (cf. Felicity Riddy, “The Use of the Past in Sir Orfeo.” Yearbook of English Studies 6, 1976, pp. 9-10).

[55] White horses and garments recur in romances and dream vision poetry.

[56] Suggesting the vulnerability of humans, Heurodis's palfrey is smaller and less powerful than the steeds of the fairy knights.

[57] See Job 30: 30-31: “My skin is black upon me, and my bones are dried up with heat. My harp also is turned to mourning, and my organ into the voice of them that weep.” (KJV)

[58] Mentioned only twice in the poem.

[59] Lines 463-68: The rash boon is common in folklore. For a Biblical analogue, compare Herod’s rash promise to Herodias' daughter. Mark 6:14-29.

[60] A metapoetic reference to the minstrel's art.

[61] Male thrush.

[62] Genesis 2: 18, 20-24.

[63] The reference may be to Plutarch’s account of the life of Alexander the Great where the young king, very much in line with his mentor Aristotle’s teaching, is reported to have expressed his lack of interest in women and sex.

[64] In the world of men.

[65] Sir Gawain, King Arthur’s nephew and one of the knights of the Round Table, was generally considered “the maidens’ knight” and his complex and controversial relationships with women were typically explored in English and continental romances.

[66] The reference is most probably to Constantine the Great’s wife Fausta who was executed for seducing her stepson Crispus and contriving his death.

[67] The biblical story of Samson’s betrayal by Delilah is told in Judges.

[68] Typically, the beginning places the story in historical context, with reference to the fall of Troy. 

[69] A reference to the pseudohistorical treachery of Antenor and Aeneas at the fall of Troy, as told by Dares and Dictus.

[70] Romulus, Ticius, and Langoberde are legendary ancestors, after whom peoples and countries were named. According to Nennius, Longbeard, or Langoberde, is the first man to have settled in Europe.

[71] Brutus, Aeneas’s descendant, is the legendary founder of Britain.

[72] In alliterative verse.

[73] King Arthur's palace.

[74]Arthur's knights are not sitting at the Round Table, devised to avoid hierarchical distinctions, but acording to the custom in medieval castles.

[75] Gawain's brother. Gawain and Aggravaine were sons of King Lot of Orkney and King Arthur's half sister Anna.

[76] Bishop Baldwin was seated on Arthur's right, the position of honour. Guinevere was sitting on the King's left.

[77] Sir Ywain, the Knight of the Lion, was Gawain's best friend. Cf. Chrétien de Troyes' Yvain, the Knight of the Lion.

[78] Banners were attached to trumpets in the Middle Ages.

[79] Double drums which the Crusaders brought back from the east.

[80] The Green Knight's colour relates him both to the Green man of medieval folklore and to the Devil, traditionally associated with green.

[81] A sign of the Green Knight's self-imposed vulnerability. Knights would normally wear hose, but not armoured shoes, when not prepared for battle. 

[82] Another sign of the Green Knight’s proximity to Nature.

[83] A Christmas symbol of good luck, foreshadowing the poem’s happy ending.

[84] The traditional motif of the Exchange of Winnings.

[85] A common legal term of the time.

[86] A  sign of anger in medieval literature.

[87] Except.

[88] The Beheading Game.

[89] Another suggestion of the harmless character of the poem's beheading and exchange rituals.

[90] Palm Sunday. Cf. Mark 11:1–11, Matthew 21:1–11, Luke 19:28–44, and John 12:12–19.

[91] Praise and glory (Latin).

[92] Save us, please (Hebrew). A liturgical word.

[93] References to the service on Palm Sunday and Chrsit’s Entry into Jerusalem. Cf. John 12:13. 

[94] Like the ass, on which Christ rode, a sign of his humility.

[95] The son of David.

[96] Blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord. (Mark 11:9, KJV),

[97] Human nature.

[98] Perfect God.

[99] God the Father.

[100] O death, I will be thy plagues. (Hosea 13:14, KJV)

[101] Sat in the Judgement seat.

[102] Crucify him.

[103] Off with him.

[104] Hail, master!

[105] Langland's account borrows from all four gospels and contains additions of his own.

[106] Poison is not mentioned in the Gospels, where Christ is given vinegar and/or wine.

[107] It is finished. ( John 19:30, KJV). Christ's last  words on the Cross, in the Latin Vulgate: Cum ergo accepisset Jesus acetum, dixit: Consummatum est. Et inclinato capite tradidit spiritum.

[108] Truly this was the son of God. (Matthew 27:54, KJV)

[109]The soldier with the spear in John 19:34, Longinus in the Gospel of Nicodemus. Langland's knight is a characteristic anachronism.

[110] When the Holy of Holies comes, your anointing shall cease. (Cf. Daniel 9:24)

[111] Descend into Hell.

[112] According to the Scriptures.

[113] Because there is no redemption in Hell. (Cf. Job 7:9)

[114] Art by art would deceive.

[115] Weeping may endure for a night but joy cometh in the morning. (Psalm 30:5, KJV)

[116] I will both lay me down in peace, and sleep. (Psalm 4:8, KJV)

[117] Till we experience a small amount.

[118] Father-in-law.

[119] A comet.

[120] Bid me come unto thee on the water. (Matthew 14:28, KJV)

[121] A mythological giant.

[122] Lift up your heads, O ye gates; even lift them up, ye everlasting doors; and the King of glory shall come in. (Psalm 24:9, KJV).

[123] Now shall the prince of this world be cast out (John 12:31, KJV).

[124] Who is that?

[125] The King of Glory.

[126] The lord of virtue.

[127] The people that walked in darkness have seen a great light: they that dwell in the land of the shadow of death, upon them hath the light shined. (Isaiah 9:2, KJV). 

[128] Behold the Lamb of God. (John 1:36, KJV)

[129] Eye for eye, tooth for tooth. (Exodus 21:24, KJV).

[130] Think not that I am come to destroy the law, or the prophets: I am not come to destroy, but to fulfil. (Matthew 5:17, KJV)

[131] He is fallen into the hole he made. (Cf. Psalm 7:16, KJV: He made a pit, and digged it, and is fallen into the ditch which he made.)

[132] The resurrection of the dead.

[133] To thee only I have sinned. (Cf. Psalm 50:6, KJV: And the heavens shall declare his righteousness.)

[134] No evil shall go unpunished. Cf. Proverbs 11:21, KJV:  The wicked shall not be unpunished.)

[135] I heard secret words which it is not granted to man to utter. (Cf. 2 Corinthians 2:4, KJV: How that he was caught up into paradise, and heard unspeakable words, which it is not lawful for a man to utter.)

[136] Lord, enter not into judgement with thy servant. (Cf. Psalm 142:2, KJV: And enter not into judgment with thy servant: for in thy sight shall no man living be justified.)

[137] Flesh sins, flesh frees from sin, as God now reigns, God flesh within. (Aeterne Rex Altuissime, St.4., Matins Ascension Hymn, Roman Breviary).

[138] After much cloud the sun we brighter see,/ Love brighter, also, after enmity.  (Alanus de Insulis, Liber Parabolorum, P.L. 210, 581-82).

[139] For ever and ever.

[140] Mercy and truth are met together; righteousness and peace have kissed each other. (Psalm 85:10, KJV)

[141] The Latin hymn “We praise you, God.”

[142] Behold, how good and how pleasant it is. (Cf. Psalm 133:1, KJV: Behold, how good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity!)

[143] The constellation Aries.

[144] Administrative unit for the division of land.

[145] The most popular pilgrimage destination in England in those days was the Shrine of Thomas Becket in Canterbury Cathedral.

[146] At the time Sowthwark was a small satellite town right outside of London in the marshy area around the river Thames.

[147] One of the many inns that accommodated the numerous pilgrims headed to Canterbury.

[148] The city of Alexandria in Egypt was looted by Pierre de Lusignan, king of Cyprus, in the so called “Alexandria Crusade” (1365).

[149] When knights wanted employment it was usual for them to go and serve in Prussia and aid the knights of the Teutonic order fight with neighbouring nations in Lithuania and Russia.

[150] The city of Algesiras, today in Spain, west of Gibraltar, was taken by the Moorish king of Granada in 1344; Belmarie was one of the Moorish kingdoms on the northern coast of Africa.

[151] The two places, the former today in Armenia and the latter in Turkey, were raided by Pierre de Lusignan in 1367 and 1352 respectively.

[152] The Mediterranean.

[153] Tramassene was another Moorish kingdom in northern Africa.

[154] “The lists” is the enclosed field of combat in martial tournaments.

[155] A province in Anatolia, Turkey.

[156] A short doublet of simple hardwearing cloth.

[157] A light sleeveless coat of mail worn under the plated hauberk.

[158] A young man who attended a knight at times of war and bore his shield; usually the eldest son of the knight.

[159] Today territories in Belgium and France.

[160] A lesser servant of common birth (young man).

[161] A leather guard worn to protect the arm.

[162] Patron saint of travelers.

[163] The nun second in authority (after the abbess) in a convent.

[164] St. Eligious, patron of goldsmiths.

[165] The name is of French origin and means “wild rose.” Sweet briar.

[166] In Chaucer’s day, a town not far from London.

[167] A popular line from Virgil’s Eclogues, Eclogue X which continues: “et nos cedamus amori” (let us too surrender to love). Cf. also 1 Corinthians 13:13: And now these three remain: faith, hope and love. But the greatest of these is love.

[168] The Benedictine Order.

[169] St. Augustine.

[170] Limiters were friars who had license to beg within a certain area.

[171] In England at the time there were four main orders of friars: The Franciscans (Grey Friars), The Augustines (Augustin Friars), the Dominicans (Black Friars), and the Carmelites (White Friars).

[172] A clergyman licensed by the Pope to hear confessions and give absolution for all sins.

[173] A medieval violin-like instrument.

[174] Cf. the beginning of the Gospel of John:  In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. (John 1:1, KJV)

[175] Double thick woolen cloth.

[176] The merchant wanted that the sea passage between Middleburgh in the Netherlands and Orwell in Suffolk was guarded at any cost so that his ships were not taken by pirates.

[177] An ecclesiastical living, an office held in return for duties and to which an income attaches.

[178] The parvys, or portico, of St. Pauls’s was a common place for meeting a lawyer to obtain legal advice.

[179] Absolute ownership, not bought with debt.

[180] An owner of land who was free of feudal service or payment, a freeholder, a gentleman farmer.

[181] An ancient Athenian philosopher who held that pleasure was the ultimate good.

[182] St. Julian was a paragon of hospitality.

[183] A dealer in small articles.

[184] An arras is a wall-hanging or tapestry.

[185] Diseases used to be categorised in these four general types.

[186] Medical authorities of the ancient and medieval world.

[187] Varieties of expensive silk cloth.

[188] Towns in Belgium famous for manufacturing woolen and linen fabrics.

[189] The alms collected at the church.

[190] The wife of Bath has been to the major destinations for pilgrimage in medieval Europe.

[191] People’s refusal to pay their tithes (the tenth part of their annual produce due for supporting the Church) was punishable by the lesser excommunication, which Chaucer’s parson is reluctant to use.

[192] A ram was the usual prize for such contests.

[193] The steward of the temple, a college or another public institution.

[194] A land steward.

[195] The word “mystery” in regular speech used to mean a man’s craft, profession, employment and was closely related to “mastery.”

[196] An officer who summoned wrongdoers to ecclesiastical courts.

[197] Walter.

[198] Which law shall apply?

[199] Excommunication.

[200] The first word of the writ for arresting excommunicated persons.

[201] Districts.

[202] Seller of pardons or indulgencies.

[203] A eunuch or a woman.

[204] Trading with (fake) holy relics was a profitable business during the medieval period.  

[205] Cf. Boethius. De Consolatione Philosophiae. Lib. III.

[206] In Chaucer’s time a London street which accommodated the largest market in the city as well as many shops and inns.

[207] A brook by the road.

[208] A man who cultivates the land; a farmer.

[209] Livery and badge showing that the bearer is employed with a noble household.

[210] Vexes him.

[211] An act of governance.

[212] Jesus Christ.

[213] Jesus Christ.

[214] With my trade in my hands I can easily find employment elsewhere.

[215] The first of the day-hours of the Church.

[216] All my savings.

[217] “Into thy hands I commend my spirit, Pontius Pilate.” Mak refers to Christ’s words in Luke 23:46 (“Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit”, KJV).

[218] “He has risen from the dead.” A Latin version of the Byzantine Easter hymn.

[219] “Judas, lord of the flesh.”

[220] A town near Wakefield.

[221] St. Thomas à Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury.

[222] While saying this Mak points at the cradle.

[223] He points at the cradle.

[224] A small coin.

[225] Tossing in a canvas, or canvassing, was a mild form of punishment chosen in the play because of its humorous dramatic effect.

[226] Gloria in excelsis Deo is a hymn which begins with the words announcing Christ’s birth in Luke 2:14 (Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will toward men, KJV)

[227] “Ecce virgo concipiet” is a Gregorian chant whose first line translates as: “Behold, a virgin shall conceive and bear a son.”

[228] Spiritual insight.

[229] An allusion to the two thieves crucified with Christ.

[230] An instance of dramatic irony. Fellowship is unaware of Everyman's actual predicament.

[231] One of the names of God in the Old Testament.

[232] Joseph Quincy Adams amends this to “agayne come” for the sake of the rhyme.

[233] The “Yonder he cometh” convention of medieval drama.

[234] Fast on bread and water; proverbial.

[235] Run.

[236] Penance imposed by the priest after confession

[237] Confession probably addresses different members of the audience.

[238] Judgment, the ability to reason.

[239] The seven sacraments of the Catholic Church are Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist (Holy Communion), Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Marriage, and Holy Orders.

[240] I.e., above the angels.

[241] Jesus be the one to give prosperity to you all.

[242] Cf. I Maccabees 3. 

[243] Great and lesser persons alike. Compare Dethe: “Lorde I wyll in the worlde go renne  ouer all / And cruelly out searche bothe grete and small.”

[244] I take off my cap so deeply that it goes into my lap.

[245] Into thy hands I commend my spirit. (Luke 23:46, KJV)

[246] Depart from me, ye cursed, into everlasting fire (Matthew 25:41, KJV).

[247] Raised.

[248] Feudal lords.

[249] It does not become you.

[250] The King of North Wales and enemy to King Arthur.

[251] Succeed.

[252] Every.

[253] Thought.

[254] Of good repute.

[255] Secretly.

[256] Not in the front of the line.

[257] I believe.

[258] Handsome.

[259] High class.

[260] Qualities.

[261] Truth.

[262] Sad.

[263] Called.

[264] Dressed.

[265] I could as well.

[266] And keep my honour intact.

[267] I am truly sorry.

[268] Whatever.

[269] I wish that his trespass is requited.

[270] Gave.

[271] Wait.

[272] Whether you want or not.

[273] Address.

[274] Coat of mail.

[275] The rump of the horse.

[276] Not knowing.

[277] Stabbed.

[278] Coat of arms.

[279] Erected.

[280] Was happening.

[281] Boisterous and unseemly.

[282] Heal.

[283] We have no reason to tell you.

[284] A bad sign.

[285] Before them.

[286] Defeated.

[287] I am indebted to him and I have done nothing to deserve his kindness.

[288] Prepared.

[289] Ere = before.

[290] Governor.

[291] Fortune-teller.

[292] If.

[293] Army.

[294] Would rather.

[295] Worn-out with fighting.

[296] Paid the price.

[297] Burial.

[298] The Holy Grail.

[299] Stay.

[300] Brother.

[301] Aid.

[302] Shame.

[303] Ere.

[304] Injury.

[305] Healthy.

[306] Announcement.

[307] Promise.

[308] Steven.

[309] If.

[310] The blade of a lance or a shaft.

[311] Furnished.

[312] Unconscious.

[313] Gave.

[314] Suffering and sorrow.

[315] Eager.

[316] Ere.

[317] Aware, wary.

[318] Ran.

[319] Silk.

[320] Embracing.

[321] I should have been spared the sorrow.

[322] Increase.

[323] Went away from this place.

[324] Courteous gestures.

[325] Even if I should die for it.

[326] Set.

[327] Crept.

[328] Destroyed.

[329] Magic.

[330] Rising.

[331] Told.